LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



Shan gopjjrigtrt l|n. 



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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



Carroll's 

Elementary Grammar, 



BEING AN ABRIDGMENT 



Carroll's New English Grammar, 



DESIGNED FOR 



PUPILS AND OTHER PERSONS BEGINNING THE STUDY 
OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



JOHN CARROLL, A. M. 

Author of Carroll's New English Grammar, 



ASSISTED BY 



HARLEY M. HOVEY and GEORGE N. WILDER. 



PUBLISHED FOR THE AUTHOR. 

. , X^* v FCON <3^ 

ST^ 10™, MO.: Ap „ * 

C. B. Woodward Company, \ ■ WnQc, /// 



1890. \J"''*w'ng1 



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Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1890, by 

JOHN CARROLL, A. M., 
H. M. HOVE? and 
G. N. WILDER, 

In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at 
Washington, D. C. 



PREFACE. 



The many suggestions made by various educators and 
teachers that my large Grammar is not adapted for the use 
of beginners, and the wishes expressed that I would pre- 
pare an elementary work for the younger class of learners, 
have induced me to compile this abridgment which, I trust, 
will be found sufficiently simple for the primary classes, 
and of sufficient scope to enable those pupils, who cannot 
spare the time to go through a full course, to acquire such a 
knowledge of the true principles of the language as will 
enable them to perform the duties of their respective sta- 
tions in life to the entire satisfaction of those with whom 
they will be associated. All experience proves that no 
system of teaching is so well calculated to insure success, 
as that which is accompanied by explicit and appropriate 
illustrations of the principles inculcated. A short ex- 
ample will often give a clearer conception of a precept, than 
the most explicit words could convey. For this reason it 
has been thought proper to adopt an exercise to each chap- 
ter and section throughout the work, so that the pupil, at 
every stage of his progress, may have a practical illustra- 
tion of the portion under his immediate study. By this ar- 
rangement it is believed that the present abridgment will, 
in a great measure, facilitate the progress of youth in the 
march of mental improvement, and prepare pupils for the 
study of my larger work. 

JOHN CARROLL, A. M. 

Little Rock, Ark., February, 1890. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Preface 3 

English Grammar 7 

Orthography 7 

Nature and Power of Letters 7 

Letters 8 

Words 10 

Sounds of the Letters 11 

Kir.es for Spelling 13 

Etymology 22 

Parts of Speech 22 

Modification of Words 24 

Derivation of Words 24 

Observation on Derivation 28 

Syntax and Sentences 30 

Parts of a Sentence 31 

Parts of Syntax 31 

Government of Words 32 

Rules of Syntax 33 

Caution to Learners 3S 

Etymology and Syntax Combined 39 

Kinds of Nouns 39 

What Belong to Nouns 41 

Gender 41 

4 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 5 

Modes of Distinguishing Sex 43 

Number of Nouns 46 

Person of Nouns. 52 

Cases of Nouns 54 

Articles 58 

Adjectives 62 

Pronouns 66 

Declension of Pronouns 67 

Compound Personal Pronouns 69 

Adjective Pronouns 70 

Relative Pronouns 74 

Compound and Interrogative Pronouns 77 

Verbs 81 

Active Verbs 81 

Passive Verbs 83 

Neuter Verbs 84 

Number and Person of Verbs 86 

Mood or Mode 88 

Tense 93 

Participles 96 

Auxiliary Verbs 101 

Conjugation of Verbs 101 

Synopsis With Thou 109 

Irregular Verbs 116 

Government of the Infinitive 122 

Participles 123 

Auxiliary Verbs 126 

Defective Verbs 130 



g TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Adverbs 132 

Prepositions 138 

Conjunctions 141 

Interjections 146 

Agreement of Nouns 1 148 

Nouns used Independently 150 

Nouns in the Case Absolute 152 

Two Negatives in the Same Sentence 157 

Verbs Governing Two Objective Cases 158 

Words Used as Different parts of Speech 163 

Analysis of Sentences 167 

Kinds of Sentences 173 

Structure of Sentences 174 

Explanation of Terms 175 

Phrases 176 

Clauses and Members 177 

Prosody 179 

Punctuation 182 

Composition 189 

Different Ways of Expressing the Same Idea 191 

Use of Capital Letters 192 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



-What does English Grammar teach? 

Answer. — English Grammar teaches us to speak 
and write the English Language correctly. 

Q. — Of how many parts is it composed? 

A. — English Grammar is composed of four parts, name- 
ly: 1st, Orthography; 2nd, Etymology; 3rd, Syntax, 
and 4th, Prosody. 

PART I. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Q. — What does Orthography include and teach? 

A. — Orthography includes a knowledge of the nature 
and power of letters and teaches how to spell words cor- 
rectly. It treats, 1st, of Letters; 2nd, of Syllables, and 3d, 
of Words. 

Q. — What is the nature of a letter? 

A.— The nature of a letter is to be a character or mark, 
expressive of a simple elementary sound. 

Q. — What is the power of a letter? 

A. — The power of a letter is the change which the addi- 
tion or diminution of a letter in a word causes in some 
other letter in that word. As, hat, 'hate, fate, fat.* 

Q. — What does the word orthography mean? 

A. — Orthography means ivord-maMng or spelling; and is 
usually learned from spelling-books and dictionaries. 

* For a full explanation see Carroll's Large Grammar, page 14. 

•7 



8 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

1.— Letters. 

Q.— What is a letter? 

A. — A letter is the first principle, or least part of a word. 
The English alphabet contains twenty-six letters. 

Q. — How are letters divided? 

A. — Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

Q. — What is a vowel, and which letters are vowels ? 

A. — A Vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded 
by itself. The vowels are o, e, i, o, it, and sometimes 10 and 
y ; w and y are consonants when they begin a word or syll i- 
ble, or when they precede a vowel sound in the same sylla- 
ble, but in every other situation they are vowels. 

Q. — What is a consonant, and which are they? 

A. — A Consonant is a letter that cannot be fully 
sounded without the aid of a vowel, as 6, d,f, I. All letters, 
except the vowels, are consonants. 

Q. — How are consonants divided? 

A. — Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 

Q. — What is said of the mutes, and which are they? 

A. — The mutes cannot be sounded at all without the aid 
of a vowel. They are b, p, t, d, k, q, and c and g, hard. 

Q. — What is said of semi- vowels, and which are they? 

A. — The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of them- 
selves. They are /, j, I, m, n, r, s, v, x, z, and c and g soft, 
and w and y when they are not vowels. 

Q. — Which of the semi-vowels are called liquids, and 
why? 

A. — Four of the semi-vowels, namely, I, m, n and r, are 
also called liquids, because they readily unite with other 
consonants, and flow, as it were, into their sounds. 

Q. — In naming the mutes and semi-vowels, what occurs? 

A. — In naming the mutes, the accompanying vowels gen- 
erally follow, as be, pe; in naming the semi-vowels, the ac- 
companying vowels precede, as ef, el. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 9 

Q. — How is the voice affected in sounding the mutes and 
semi- vowels? 

A. — In sounding the mutes, the voice is stopped short, as 
in up; in sounding the semi-vowels, the voice may be pro- 
longed, as in al. 

Q. — How are consonants classed with regard to the vocal 
organs? 

A. — The consonants are also divided, according to the 
part of the vocal organs by which they are formed. The 
principal divisions of this sort are labials, dentals, palatals, 
gutturals, nasals and Unguals. 

Q. — By which vocal organs are the labials, dentals, pala- 
tals, gutturals, nasals and Unguals chiefly formed ? 

A. — Labials are formed chiefly by the lips, Dentals by the 
teeth, Palatals by the palate, Gutturals by the throat, 
Nasals by the nose, and Linguals by the tongue. 

Q. — What letters are called labials, dentals, palatals, gut- 
turals, nasals and Unguals? 

A. — The Labials are p, b, f, v; the Dentals t, d, c, soft, 
s and z; the Palatals g soft, and j; the Gutturals k, q and 
c, and g hard ; the Nasals m and n; and the Linguals I and r. 

Q. — What is a diphthong? 

A. — A Diphthong is the union of two vowels, pro- 
nounced by a single impulse of the voice, as oi in voice, ou 
in sound. 

Q. — What is a proper diphthong? 

A. — A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the 
vowels are sounded, as oi in loin, ou in found. 

Q. — What is an improper diphthong? 

A. — An Improper Diphthong is one in which only 
one of the vowels is sounded, as ea in beat, oa in boat. 

Q. — What is a triphthong? 

A. — A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in 
one sound, as eau in beau, iew in view. 



10 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

Q. — What is a proper triphthong? 

A. — A Proper Triphthong is one in which all the 
vowels are sounded, as uoy in buoy. 

Q. — What is an improper triphthong? 

A. — An Improper Triphthong is one in which all 
the vowels are not sounded, as eau in beauty, iew in revieio. 

Q. — How is the vowel u after q considered? 

A. — C after q is never considered as part of a diphthong 
or of a triphthong. 

2.— Syllables. 

Q.— What is a syllable ? 

A. — A syllable is a disinct sound, either simple or com- 
pound, uttered bjr a single impulse of the voice, constituting 
a word, or part of a word, as a, an, ant. 

Q. — What are all words termed, respecting their number 
of syllables? 

A. — A word of one syllable is termed a monosyllable; a 
word of two syllables a dissyllable ; a word of three syllables 
a trisyllable ; and a word of four or more syllables a poly- 
syllable. 

Q. — How is the number of syllables in a word determined, 
and what is the division of words into syllables called? 

^1. — There are as many syllables in a word as there are 
vowels and diphthongs, npt counting those which are silent 
or unsounded ; and the division of words into syllables is 
called Syllabication. 

3.— Words. 

Q. — What are words? 

A. — Words are articulate sounds, used by common con- 
sent, as signs of our ideas. 

Q. — How are words classed, with regard to their origin? 

A. — All words are either primitive, derivative, or com- 
pound. 



OKTHOGRAPHY. 11 

Q. — What is a primitive word? 

A. — A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to 
a simpler word in the language, as man, good, content. 

Q. — What is a derivative word ? 

A- — A derivative word is that which may be reduced to a 
simpler word, as manful, goodness, contentment. 

Q. — What is a compound word? 

A. — A compound word is one which is composed of two 
or more words, as school-master, ink-stand. 

Q. — How may compound words in common use be writ- 
ten? 

A. — Compound words in common use may have their 
component parts united together, and may be written as 
single words, as inkstand, or they may be separated by a 
hyphen, as rail-road, glass-house, bee-hive. 

Q. — How may a word be divided at the end of a line in 
writing ? 

A. — In writing, a word of more than one syllable may be 
divided at the end of a line, but a monosyllable, or a 
syllable, never. 

THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 

A. — A has four sounds, the long, as in name, basin ; the 
broad, as in call, wall ; the short, as in fat, hat ; and the 
flat, Italian sound, as in bar, far, farther'. 

The improper diphthong, aa, has the short sound of a in 
Balaam, Canaan, Isaac; and the long sound of a in Baal, 
Gaal, Aaron. 

The Latin diphthong ce, has the long sound of e, in 
cenigma, Ccesar, and some other words. But many authors 
reject this useless excrescence of antiquity, and writs 
enigma, Cesar. 

The diphthong ai has the long sound of a, as in pail, sail, 



12 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

except in plaid, said, again, fountain, Britain, and some 
others. 

All is sounded like broad a in taught, like flat a in aunt, 
like long o in hautboy, and like short o in laurel. 

Aw has always the sound of broad a, as in bawl, crawl. 

Ay has the long sound of a, as in pay, delay. 

B. — B has only one sound, as in bad, baker, number. 

B is silent when it follows m in the same syllable, as in 
lamb, &c, except in accumb, rhomb, and succumb. It is 
also silent before t in the same syllable, as in doubt, debtor, 
&c. , and in the word subtle. 

C. — C sounds like k before a, o, u, r, I, t, and at the end 
of syllables, as in cart, cottage, curious, craft, tract, cloth, 
victim, flaccid. It has the sound of s before e, i and y, as 
in cedar, cider, cycle. It has the sound of sh when followed 
by a diphthong, and is preceded by the accent, either pri- 
mary or secondary, as in social, pronunciation, &c. ; and of 
z in discern, sacrifice, suffice. It is silent in arbuscle, czar, 
czarina, indict, victuals, muscle. 

Ch is commonly sounded like tsh, as in child, church, 
chin, but in words derived from the ancient languages it 
has the sound of k, as in chemist, chorus, and likewise in 
foreign names, as in Achish, Enoch. In words from the 
French, ch sounds like sh, as in chaise, chevcdier, and also 
when preceded by I or n, as in milch, bench, clinch, &c. 

Ch in arch, before a vowel, sounds like k, as in Arch- 
angel, except in arched, archery, archer, archenemy, but 
before a consonant it sounds like tsh, as 1n archbishop. Ch 
is silent in schism, yacht, drachm. 

D. — D has one uniform sound, as in death, do, did. It 
sounds like dj, or j, when followed by long u, preceded by 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 

the accent, as in educate, verdure. It also sounds like j, in 
grandeur, soldier. 

The termination ed, in adjectives and participial adjectives, 
retains its distinct sound, as a toick-ed man, a learn-ed man, 
bless-ed are the meek ; but in verbs the e is generally dropped, 
as passed, walked, flashed, aimed, rolled, &c, which are pro- 
nounced past, walkt, flasht, aimd, rold. 

E. — E has a long sound as in me, he, scheme; a short 
sound as in met, men, tent, and sometimes the sound of 
flat a as in sergeant, and of short i, as in yes, pretty, Eng- 
land, and generally in the unaccented terminations, es, et, en. 

F. — F has one unvaried sound as in fan, muffin, except 
in of, which when uncompounded, is pronounced ov. A 
wive's portion, a calve' 's head are improper. They should 
be, a wife's portion, a calfs head. 

G. — Gr has two sounds. It is hard before a, o, u, I, and 
r, and at the end of a word, as in gay, go, gun, glory, grant, 
bag, snug. It is soft before e, i, and y, as in genius, ginger, 
Egypt. Exceptions : get, gewgaw, gimlet, and some others. 
G is silent before n, as in gnat, &c. 

H. — H has an articulate sound as in hat, horse, hull. H 
is silent after r, as in rhetoric, rhubarb. 

I. — J has a long sound as in pine, and a short one as in 
pin. Before r, it is often sounded like u short, as in first, 
third, and in other words like short e, as in birth, virtue. 
In some words it has the sound of long e, as in machine, 
marine, profile, &c. 

J. — J has the compressed sound of dzh, nearly equal to 
the soft sound of g except in hallelujah, in which it is pro- 
nounced like y. 



14 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

K. — K has the sound of c hard, and is 1 used before e, i, 
and y, where c would be soft as in kept, king, skirt, murky. 
It is silent before n, as in knife, knell, knocker, knuckle. 

Li. — L has always a soft liquid sound as in love, billoiv. 
It is often silent as in half, talk, ivalk, almond. 

M. — M has always the same sound as in man, murmur, 
mountain, monumental; except in the word Comptroller, 
which is pronounced controller. 

N. — N has two sounds, the one pure, as in man, net, 
noble ; the other, a compound sound, as in ankle, banquet, 
distinct, &c, pronounced angkl, bangkioet, &c. N final, is 
silent when preceded by m, as in hymn, autumn, &c. 

O. — has a long sound as in no, note, over, and a short 
one as in not, got. It has the sound of oo, as in move, 
prove, and the sound of u short, as in love, dove, son, doth, 
does, attorney ; and generally in the terminations, op, ot, or, 
on, om, ol, od, &c. 

P. — P has but one uniform sound, as in pin, slipper; 
except in cupboard, and clapboard, where it has the sound 
of b. It is mute in psalm, Ptolemy, tempt, empty, corps, 
raspberry, and receipt. 

Ph has the sound of /, as in philosophy , Philip, &c, and 
of v, as in Stephen. 

Q. — Q is sounded like k, and is always followed by u 
pronounced like iv, as in quadrant, queen, conquest. 

R. — R has a rough sound as in Rome, river, rage, and a 
smooth one as in bard, card, regard. In the unaccented 
termination re, the r is sounded after the e, as in fibre, 
centre, &c. 

S. — S has a flat sound like z, as in raise, besom, and at 
the beginning of words, a sharp hissing sound ; as in sai?it, 



OltTHOGRAPHY. 1 5 

sister, sample. It has the sound of sh when preceded by 
the accent and another s, or a liquid, and followed by a 
diphthong or long u, as in pressure, expulsion, censure. S, 
sounds like zh when preceded by the accent and a vowel, 
and followed by a diphthong or long u, as in brasier, usual. 
* It is mute in isle, corps, demesne, viscount. 

T. — T is sounded in take, temper. T, before u, when 
the accent precedes, and generally before* eou, sounds like 
tsh, as nature, virtue, righteous, are pronounced natshure, 
virtshue, richeus. Ti, before a vowel, preceded by the ac- 
cent, has the sound of sh, as in salvation, negotiation, except 
in such words as tierce, tiara, &c, and unless an s goes be- 
fore, as question, and excepting also derivatives from words 
ending it ty, as in mighty, mightier. 

Til has two sounds, one thin and sharp as in thin, path, 
panther, the other broad, or vocal, as in thine, then, worthy, 
&e. 

U. — U has three sounds, a long one, as in tube, mule, 
cubic; a short one, as in tub, dull, custard, and an obtuse 
sound, as in pull, full, bushel. It is pronounced like short 
e in bury, and like short * in busy, business. 

V. — V has one uniform sound as in vote, value, love, 
vanity. 

W. — W when a consonant has its sound, which is heard 
in wo, beware. W is silent before r, as in wry, wrap, 
wrinkle, and also in answer, sword, &c. Before h, it is pro- 
nounced as if written after the h, as in why, when, what, 
hwy, hwen, hwat. When heard as a vowel, it takes the 
sound of u, as in draw, crew, now. 

X. — X has a sharp sound like ks, when it ends a syllable 
with the accent on it, as excel, exchange, exercise, or when 
it precedes an accented syllable which begins with any con- 



16 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

sonant except h, as excuse, extent, but when the following 
accented syllable begins with a vowel or h, it has generally 
a flat sound, like gs, or gz, as in exert, example, exhort, &c. 
X has the sound of z at the beginning of proper names of 
Greek original, as in Xanthus, Xenephon, Xeries. 

■Y. — Y when a consonant has its proper sound, as in 
youth, York, yes, yet, new-year. When y is employed as a 
vowel, it has exactly that sound that i would have in the 
same situation as in rhyme, system, party, pyramid. 

Z. — Z has the sqund of flat s, as in breeze, brazen. 
RULES FOR SPELLING. 

Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its proper 
letters. 

The orthography of the English language is so anomal- 
ous, and in many cases arbitrary, that proficiency in it can 
be acquired only by practice, and the use of the spelling- 
book and dictionary. The following rules are of a general 
character, though even to these there may be a few excep- 
tions. 

RULE I. 

Monosyllables ending in /, I, or s, preceded by a 
single vowel, double the final consonant, as staff, mill, pass. 

Exceptions. — Of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, us, 
gas, pus. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following words : 
Mil, mis, gues, spel, wal, tal, stif, puf, gros, las, til, iff, 
iss, hass, yess, thiss, thuss, wass. 

RULE II. 

Words ending in any other consonant than /, I, or s, do 
not double the final letter, as man, hat, war, drug. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 1 7 

Exceptions. — Add, odd, ebb, inn, err, purr, butt, buzz, 
buna, egg. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following words : 
Rapp, whenn, gunn, bragg, tarr, batt, sinn, onn, fedd, 
tubb, ad, eb, od, er, pur, eg, buz. 

RULE III. 

Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, 
ending with a single consonant that is preceded by a single 
vowel, double that consonant when they assume another 
syllable that begins with a vowel, as wit, toitty; thin, tliin- 
nish; admit, admittance, admitted. 

Exceptions. — But x and h are never doubled. 

But when a diphthong or double vowel precedes, or the 
accent is not on the last syllable, the consonant remains 
single, as toil, toiling; maid, maiden; wo®l, ivoolen; fool, 
foolish; offer, offering; visit, visited. 

Exception. — In quit, t is preceded by two vowels, but 
the u has the consonant sound of w. 

Remarks. — There are four conditions to be regarded in 
this doubling. (1.) The word must be a monosyllable, 
or a word accented on the last syllable. (2.) It must end 
in a single consonant. (3.) This consonant must be pre- 
ceded by a single vowel. (4.) The termination or suffix 
must begin with a vowel. 

Examples. — In differ-ing, the first condition is wanting ; 
in defend-iug, the second ; in recoil-mg, the third ; and in 
allot-ment, the fourth condition is wanting. 

2. The reason for doubling the consonant is that the 
short sound of the vowel may be retained in the derivative ; 



18 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

thus, bloting would be pronounced like bloating, with the 
long sound of o. But in such words as are formed, accord- 
ing to the second part of the rule, or do not possess the 
four conditions required, the proper sound is retained with- 
out doubling. 

3. There are more than sixty words about which there is 
a disagreement among lexicographers, as to whether the 
final consonant should or should not be doubled. These 
words, ending chiefly in I, conform to the other three con- 
ditions of the rule, but are not accented on the last syllable. 
Webster, and those who accept him as authority, do not 
double the final consonant in these cases. Worcester, and 
his English predecessors, Richardson, Walker, Johnson, 
and others, do double the final consonant. Worcester 
writes travel, travelling, traveller; worship, worshipping, 
worshipper. Webster writes travel, traveling, traveler; wor- 
ship, worshiping, worshiper. 

The words in question are the following: Worship, Jcid- 
nap, compromit, bias, carburet, sulphuret, and some other 
like words in chemistry ; and the following fifty-three in I, 
namely: Apparel, bevel, bowel, embowel, cancel, coral, cavil, 
channel, chisel, counsel, cudgel, dishevel, drivel, duel, enamel, 
equal, gambol, gravel, grovel, hatchel, housel, imperil, jewel, 
kennel, label, laurel, level, libel, marshal, marvel, model, 
panel, empanel, parallel, parcel, pencil, peril, pistol, pom- 
mel, quarrel, ravel, unravel, revel, rival, rowel, shovel, 
shrivel, snivel, tassel, trammel, travel, tunnel, victual. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following : 

Spot, spoted ; allot, allotecl ; annul, annuled ; refer, re- 
f ering ; permit, permited ; overset, overseting ; beg, begar ; 
dig, diging; begin, beginer ; run, runer; boil, boilling; dif- 
fer, differrence ; proceed, proceedding ; defeat, defeatted ; 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 1 9 

embroil, embroilling ; bigot, bigotted ; general, generalize ; 
deep, deepper. 

EULE IV. 

Words ending in double I, in taking ness, less, ly, or fid, 
after them, generally omit one I, as fulness, skilless, fully, 
skilful, chilness. 

But words ending in any double letter, but I, and taking 
ness, less, ly, or fid, after them, retain the letter double, as 
harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful. 

Note. — In the words skilful and chilness, Mr. Webster, 
and some others, retain the double I, and write skillful and 
dullness. ■ 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following : 

Dull, dullly ; hill, hillly ; fail, f ullly ; skill, skillless ; stiff, 
stifly ; peerless, peerlesly ; harmless, harmlesly ; 

. RULE V. 

Final e is omitted before terminations beginning with a 
vowel, as save, saving; force, forcible; blame, blamable. 

Exceptions. — Words ending in ce or ge, retain e before 
able, to preserve the soft sound of c and g, as change, change- 
able; peace, peaceable. 

Remarks. — 1. Some writers retain e when able is added 
to blame, move, reprove, sale, and their compounds. 

2. The word singe retains e before ing, to distinguish it 
from singing from sing. The words shoe and hoe also re- 
tain e before ing. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following : 

Slave, slaveish ; convince, convinceing ; change, change- 
ing ; please, pleaseing ; excuse, excuseable ; leave, leaveing ; 



20 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

ride, rideing ; blue, blueish ; charge, chargable ; service, 
servicable ; change, changable ; singe, singing. 

RULE VI. 

Silent e is retained before terminations beginning with 
consonants, as close, closely; abate, abatement. 

Exceptions. — Duly, truly, awful, drop e. Argument is 
derived from the Latin argumentum, and not from argue. 

When the e is preceded by dg, some drop and others re- 
tain e, as abridge, abridgment, or abridgement. The e is 
usually dropped in judgment. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following: 

Sincere, sincerly ; sedate, sedatness ; advance, advanc- 
ment ; cease, ceasless ; love, lovly ; waste, wastful ; arrange, 
arrangment; judge, judgement; lodge, lodgement; ac- 
knowledge, acknowledgement. 

RULE VII. 

Words ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change y 
into i when a consonant is added, as fly, flies; merry, mer- 
rier, merriest, merriment. 

Exception 1. — Before ing, y is retained that i may not be 
doubled, as carry, carrying; deny, denying. 

Remark. — Words ending in ie after dropping e before ing, 
change i into y, for the same reason ; as die, dying. 

Exception 2. — Dyeing, the present participle of dye, re- 
tains e to distinguish it from dying, the present participle 
of die. 

Remark. — Words ending in y, preceded by a vowel, re- 
tain the y unchanged, as play, playing ; valley, valleys; boy, 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 21 

boyish; boy, boyhood; but lay, pay, say,, make laid, paid, 
said, and day makes daily. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following : 

Happy, happyer ; mercy, mercyf ul ; spy, spyes ; carry, 
carryed ; vary, varyance ; deny, denyed ; lady, ladys ; deny, 
deniing ; tarry, tarriing ; fancy, f anciing ; stay, staiing ; 
dismay, dismaied ; valley, vallies ; chimney, chimnies ; day, 
daies. 

RULE VIII. 

Some words ending in II drop one I in composition, as 
full, handful; all, always; till, until. 

Remark. — Some writers improperly drop one I in such 
words as foretell, enroll, recall, &c. 

exercises. 
Correct the errors in the following : 

Carefull, wellcome, usefull, allways, hurtfull, allready, 
fulfil, miscal, waterfal, sandhil. 

RULE IX. 

The terminations eive and ieve in such words as receive, 
relieve, &c, eive is used if the letter c precedes, as receive, 
perceive; but ieve is used if any other letter precedes, as 
believe, retrieve. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following : 

Acheive, concieve, retrieve, releive, decieve, beleive, 
percieve. 

Now, repeat the sounds of the letters, and the rules for 
spelling. 

N. B. — From the foregoing, you can learn the leading 
principles of orthography, and for further explanations see 
Carroll's Large Grammar, page 26, &c. 



PART II. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Question.— What does Etymology teach ? 

Answer. — Etymology teaches how to form from all 
the words iu the English language several grand divisions 
or sorts, commonly called parts of speech. 

Q. — What does it include? 

A. — It includes a knowledge of the meaning and use of 
words, also their different changes and derivations. 

Q. — What does the word signify? 

A. — Etjnnology signifies the origin or pedigree of words. 

Q. — What does etymology first treat of? 

A. — First. — Etjnnology treats of the classification of 
words. 

Q. — Into how many divisions or sorts are words divided ? 

A. — All the words of the English language are divided 
into ten sorts, commonly called parts of speech, namely : 
Noun, Article, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Ad- 
verb, Preposition, Conjunction and Interjection. 

1. — A Noun is the name given to the name of any per- 
son, place, or thing, as man, London, knife, &c. 

2. — An Article is a word placed before a noun, to 
limit its meaning, as, a man, an apple, the boy, the apples, 
&c. There are only two articles, a or an and the. 

3. — An Adjective is a word joined or added to a 
noun to describe it, or to express its quality, as a good boy, 
a sweet apple, an honest man, &c. 
22 



ETYMOLOGY. 23 

4. — A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to 
avoid a disagreeable repetition of the noun, as, John goes 
to school, he learns fast, and he will excel. You perceive 
that the little word h& stands for, or instead of John, and is 
therefore called a pronoun. In the expressions, "He 
loves," "She writes," "It snows," the words, he, she 
and it are pronouns, because they are used instead of 
nouns. Hereafter, I will make you acquainted with the 
origin and use of the several kinds, of pronouns. 

5. — A Verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or 

to suffer, as, I am, I rule, I am ruled. 

Remark. — The verb is the most important part of speech, 
for without it no sentence can be expressed. It is.theverb 
that describes or tells the state or condition of the noun or 
subject of which we speak, by telling whether it only exists, 
or performs some action, or is acted upon, as, "John 
lives." "John beats James." "John is beaten by Joseph." 
In these examples, the verb lives, signifies "to be, or to 
exist;" the verb beats, signifies "to do, or to perform some 
act," and the verb is beaten, signifies "to suffer," which 
means that John suffered and received the effect of the act 
performed by Joseph. This definition of the verb has been 
changed by many authors, but as yet no definition has been 
given which is not objectionable. At a future time, and in 
the proper place, this subject will be fully illustrated. 

6. — A Participle is a word derived from a verb, and 
partakes of the nature of a verb and also of an adjective, 
as, "I found a man laboring in the field," and "The 
laboring man should not be wronged." In the first 
example, the word laboring expresses action, and therefore 
resembles a verb; in the second, it is joined to the noun 
man, to describe it, and therefore resembles an adjective. 



24 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

*7. — An Adverb is a word used to qualify a verb, a 
participle, an adjective, or another adverb, as, "John 
speaks distinctly," "He is writing rapidly," "He is re- 
markably diligent," and "He reads very correctly." 

8. — A Preposition connects words together, and 
thereby shows the relation between them, as, "He sailed 
for Europe." "Look above this earth." 

9. — A Conjunction is a word used to connect words 
and sentences together, as, "King and Queen." "Life is 
short and art is long." 

10. — An Interjection is used to express some 
strong or sudden emotion of the mind, as Ah! Alas! Bravo! 
Hush ! &c. 

These definitions of the parts of speech ought to be prac- 
tically and fully understood in order to be able to under- 
stand hereafter the properties peculiar to each class, and 
how one class of words is derived from another. 

Q. — What does etymology secondly explain, and what is 
meant by the modification of words? 

A. — Second. — Etymology explains the accidents or prop- 
erties peculiar to each class or sort of words and their 
present modifications. By modifications, I mean the 
changes produced in their endings, in consequence of their 
assuming different relations in respect to one another. 
These changes, such as fruit, fruits, fruit's; he, his, him ; 
write, writest, writeth, writes, wrote, written, writing, 
writer ; a, an ; ample, amply ; and the like will be explained 
in their appropriate places. 

Q. — What does etymology thirdly treat of, and what do 
you understand by the derivation of words? 

A. — Thtkd. — Etymology treats of the derivation of 
words, that is, it teaches how one word conies from, or 



ETYMOLOGY. 25 

grows out of another. For example, from the word speak 
come the words speakes£, speaker, speaks, speak^io, spoke, 
spoken, speaker, speaker's, speakers. These, you per- 
ceive, are all one and the same word, and all, except the 
last three, express the same kind of action. They differ 
from each other only in the termination. These changes in 
the termination are produced on the word in order to make 
it correspond with the various persons who speak, the num- 
ber of persons, or the time of speaking, as, I speak, thou 
speakest, the man speaketh, or speaks, the men speak, I 
spoke. The speaker speaks another speaker's speech. 
Some parts of speech are also derived from one another, 
namely : 

1. Nouns are derived from verbs. 

2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and some- 
times from adverbs. 

3. Adjectives are derived from nouns. 

4. Nouns are derived from adjectives. 

5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 

1. Nouns are derived from verbs, as from "to love," 
comes "lover;" from "to visit, visitor;" from "to survive, 
survivor," &c. 

In the following instances, and in many others, it is dif- 
ficult to determine whether the verb was deduced from the 
noun, or the noun from the verb, viz: "Love, to love; 
hate, to hate ; fear, to fear ; sleep, to sleep ; walk, to walk ; 
ride, to ride ; act, to act ;" &c. 

2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and some- 
times from adverbs; as, from the noun salt, comes "to 
salt;" from the adjective warm, "to warm;" and from the 
adverb forward, "to forward." Sometimes they are 
formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening the conso 
nant, as, from "grass, to graze;" sometimes by adding en, 



26 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

as from "length, to lengthen;" especially to adjectives, as 
from "short, to shorten; bright, to brighten." 

3. Adjectives are derived from nouns in the following 
manner: adjectives denoting plenty are derived from 
nouns, by adding?/; as, from "health, healthy ; wealth, 
wealthy; might, mighty ;" &c. 

Adjectives denoting the matter out of which anything is 
made, are derived from nouns, by adding en; as, from 
"oak, oaken; wood, wooden; wool, woolen;" &c. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns 
by adding fid; as, from "joy, joyful; sin, sinful ; fruit, 
fruitful ;" &c. 

Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of di- 
minution, are derived from nouns, by adding some; as, 
from "light, lightsome; trouble, troublesome; toil, toil- 
some ;" &c. 

Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns by 
adding less;'as, from "worth, worthless; care, careless; 
joy, joyless;" &c. 

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns by 
adding??/; as, from "man, manly; earth, earthly ; court, 
courtly ;" &c. 

Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or 
from nouns, by adding ish to them ; which termination, when 
added to adjectives, imports dimunition, or lessening the 
quality; as "white, whitish;" i. e. somewhat white. When 
added to nouns it signifies similitude, or tendency to a char- 
acter ; as, "child, childish; thief, thievish;" &c. 

Some adjectives are formed from nouns or verbs by add- 
ing the termination able; and those adjectives signify ca- 
pacity ; as, "answer, answerable; to change, changeable." 

4. Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by 
adding the termination ness; as, "white, whiteness; swift, 



ETYMOLOGY. 27 

swiftness;" sometimes by adding tli or t, and making a 
small change in some of the letters; as, "long, length; 
high, height." 

5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by 
adding ly, or changing le into ly ; and denote the same 
quality as the adjectives from which they are derived ; as, 
from "base" comes "basely ; from "slow, slowly;" from 
"able, ably." 

Some nouns are derived from other nouns, by adding the 
termination hood or head, ship, ery, wick, rich, dom, ian, 
ment, and age. 

Nouns ending in hood or head, are such as signify 
character or qualities ; as, "manhood, knighthood, false- 
hood," &c. 

Nouns ending in ship are those that signify office, em- 
ployment, state, or condition; as, "lordship, stewardship, 
partnership," &c. Some nouns in ship are derived from 
adjectives; as, "hard, hardship," &c. 

Nouns which end in ery signify action or habit; as, 
"slavery, foolery, prudery," &c. Some nouns of this sort 
come from adjectives; as, "brave, bravery," &c. 

Nouns ending in wick, rick and dom, denote dominion, 
jurisdiction, or condition; as, "bailiwick, bishopric, king- 
dom, dukedom, freedom," &c. 

Nouns which end in ian, are those which signify profes- 
sion; as, "physician, musician," &c. Those that end in 
ment and age, come generally from the French, and com- 
monly signify the act or habit; as, "commandment, 
usage," &c. 

Some nouns ending in ard are derived from verbs or ad- 
jectives, and denote character or habit ; as, "drunk, drunk- 
ard; dote, dotard." 

Some nouns have the form of diminutives, but these are 



28 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

not many. They are formed by adding the terminations 
kin, ling, ing, and the like; as, "lamb, lambkin ; goose, 
gosling; duck, duckling; hill, hillock," &c. 

There are so many other ways of deriving words from 
one another that it would be extremely difficult, if not im- 
possible, to enumerate them. The primitive words of ever}' 
language are very few ; the derivatives form much the 
greater number. 

N. B. — For a list of the prefixes and suffixes which are 
applied to English words, with their signification, see Car- 
roll's Large Grammar, page 34, &c. 

Observation. — I have not treated largely of that branch 
of derivation which consists in tracing words to foreign 
languages. This is the province of the lexicographer, 
rather than of the philologist. It is not the business of him 
who writes a practical English Grammar, to trace words to 
the Saxon, Celtic or Greek, nor is it his province to explain 
their meaning in Latin, French or Hebrew ; but it is his 
duty to explain their properties, their powers, their connec- 
tions, relations, dependencies and bearings, not in former 
ages, but at the particular time in which he writes. His 
words are already derived, formed, established and fur- 
nished to his hand, and he is bound to take them and ex- 
plain them as he finds them in his day, without any regard 
to their ancient construction and application ; which was 
quite different from the present, and caused Fenning, many 
years ago, to say : 

"Let each foreign tongue alone, 

'Till you can read and write your own." 

Q. — How is the part of speech to which any word 
belongs ascertained? 

A. — The part of speech to which any word belongs 
is ascertained not by the original signification of that word, 



ETYMOLOGY. 29 

but by its present manner of meaning, or rather, the office 
which it performs in a sentence. 

Q. — What do you understand by the manner of meaning 
of a word ? 

A. — The various ways in which a word is applied to the 
idea which it represents are called its manner of meaning. 
Thus, the painter dips his paint brush in paint, to paint the 
carriage. Here the word paint is first employed to describe 
the brush which the painter uses; in this situation it is, 
therefore, an adjective ; secondly, to name the mixture 
employed, for which reason it is a noun; and lastly, to ex- 
press the action performed, it therefore becomes a verb; and 
yet the meaning of the word is the same in all these ap- 
plications. The meaning, however, is applied in different 
ways, and thus the same word becomes different parts of 
speech. 



PART III. 



SYNTAX. 

Question. What does Syntax teach? 

Answer. — Syntax teaches how to arrange or form words 
into sentences correctly. 

Q. — What does it include ? 

A. — It includes a knowledge of the rules of composition, 
formed from the practice of the best writers and speakers. 

Q. — What does the word syntax signify? 

A. — Syntax signifies arranging or placing together, or, as 
used in grammar, sentence-making. 

Q. — What is a sentence? 

A. — A Sentence is an assemblage of words forming 
complete sense. 

Q. — How many kinds of sentences are there? 

A. — Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

Q. — What is a simple sentence? 

A. — A Simple Sentence has in it but one subject, 
and one finite verb, as, "Life is short." 

Q. — What are finite verbs? 

A. — Finite verbs are those to which number and person 
appertain. Verbs in the infinitive mood have no respect to 
number and person. 

Q. — What is a compound sentence? 

A. — A Compound Sentence consists of two or 
more simple sentences connected together, as, "Life is 
short, and art is long." 

Q. — How may the members of sentences be divided? 
30 



SYNTAX. 31 

A. — As sentences themselves are divided into simple and 
compound, so the members of sentences may be divided 
likewise into simple and compound members, for whole sen- 
tences, whether simple or compound, may become members 
of other sentences by means of some additional connection, 
as in the following example : "The ox knoweth his owner, 
and the ass his master's crib, but Israel doth not know, my 
people doth not consider." This sentence consists of two 
compound members, each of which is sub-divided into two 
simple members which are properly called clauses. 

Q. — What is a phrase? 

A. — A phrase is two or more words rightly put to- 
gether, making sometimes a part of a sentence, but never a 
whole sentence. 

Q. — What are the principal parts of a simple sentence ? 

A. — The principal parts of a simple sentence are the sub- 
ject, the verb or attribute, and the object. 

Q. — How are those described? 

A. — The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of, the at- 
tribute is the thing or action affirmed or denied of it, and 
the object is the thing affected by such action. 

Q. — Where are they usually placed? 

A. — The nominative case denotes the subject, and usually 
goes before the verb or attribute, and the word or phrase 
denoting the object follows the verb, as, "A wise man gov- 
erns his passions." Here a wise man is the subject; gov- 
erns the attribute or thing affirmed, and his passions the ob- 
ject. 

Q. — Of how many parts does syntax consist, and what is 
concord? 

A. — Syntax principally consists of two parts, concord 
and government. Concord is the agreement which one 
word has with another in gender, number, person, or case. 



32 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

N. B. — Every noun and pronoun is of some gender, num- 
ber, person, and in some case ; and every finite verb i% of 
the same number and person, of which its subject or nomi- 
native is. These properties are illustrated where the 
nouns, pronouns and verbs are fully treated of. 

Q. — When and why does one word govern another? 

A. — One word governs another, when it requires that other 
word, to be expressed, in order to complete the sentence, or 
the sense. For instance, when I say "I love," the word 
love extends universally to any thing that can be loved, and 
it requires some other word to express what I love, as, I 
love John. Now you can understand that the noun John 
completes the sentence and the sense. You can also under- 
stand that the governing word love introduces an idea which 
it does not express, and requires another word to express 
that idea, in order to complete the sentence and the sense. 

Remark. — For a full and complete explanation, and dem- 
onstration of the principles of government, see Carroll's 
Large Grammar, page 40, &c, and the explanation of Ar- 
tificial Language, Ideas, and Words, will be found on 
pages 7 and 8. 

The rules of syntax, which direct to the proper choice of 
words, and their judicious arrangement in a sentence, and 
thereby enable us to correct and avoid errors in speech, 
are chiefly based on principles unfolded and explained by 
etymology. Etjnnological knowledge, then, is a prerequi- 
site to the study of syntax ; but, in parsing, under the head 
of etymology, we are required to apply the rules of syntax. 
It becomes necessary, therefore, in a practical work of this 
sort, to treat these two parts of grammar in connection. 

I have therefore introduced some of the general principles 
of syntax, in order to enable you to understand the prin- 
ciples unfolded, in the definitions and rules of etymology 



33 



and syntax. This you can do without any difficulty, if you 
understand perfectly the nature of government, and memo- 
rize the following rules appertaining to the different parts of 
speech, and to syntax. 

Rule 1. — The possessive case is governed by the follow- 
ing noun. 

Rule 2. — The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns 
of the singular number. 

Rule 3. — The definite article the belongs to nouns of the 
singular or plural number. 

Rule 4. — Adjectives belong to the nouns which they de- 
scribe. 

Rule 5. — Pronouns must agree with the nouns for 
which they stand, in gender, number and person. 

Rule 6. — The nominative case governs the verb in num- 
ber and person. ' 

Demonstration. — The manner in which the nominative 
case governs the verb, is different from the manner in 
which one word governs another as explained in the dem- 
onstration on government. The only government which the 
nominative case has of the verb, is only that of requiring 
the verb to be of the same number and person with itself. 
Hereafter you need be at no loss to tell what the number 
and person of any verb in a sentence is, when you know the 
number and person of its subject or nominative, for they 
must be alike. 

Rule 7. — The verb must agree with its nominative case 
in number and person. 

Demonstration. — The reason of this is very simple, as 
the verb in its simple or first form has neither number nor 
person, and that when it is placed in a sentence it gets its 
number and person from its nominative ; it is plain that it 
must agree with its nominative in number and person, be 



34 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

cause the nominative cannot give it a number and person 
which it has not itself. 

Rule 8. — Active transitive verb's govern the objective 
case. 

Demonstration. — Active transitive verbs govern the ob- 
jective case because they have extension; that is, they in- 
troduce an idea which they do not express, and they require 
the noun in the objective case, to express this idea, to com- 
plete the sentence and the sense. So do all governing 
words. 

Rule 9. — Adverbs belong to the verbs, participles, ad- 
jectives, and other adverbs which they qualify. 

Rule 10. — Prepositions govern the objective case. 

Rule 11. — Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the 
same mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the same 
case. 

Rule 12. — The infinitive mood may be governed by 
verbs, participles, adjectives, nouns and pronouns. 

Rule 13. — Participles refer to nouns. 

Rule 14. — Active participles, from active transitive 
verbs, govern the objective case. 

Rule 15. — When two or more nouns or pronouns, in the 
same sentence signify the same person or thing, they are 
put, by apposition, in the same case; as, Cicero, the great 
orator, philosopher and statesman of Rome was murdered by 
Antony. 

Rule 16. — When an address is made, the name of the 
person or thing addressed is in the nominative case inde- 
pendent. 

Rule 17. — A noun or pronoun before a participle, and 
independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nomina- 
tive case absolute; as, "Shame being lost, all virtue is 
lost," that is, when shame is lost. 



SYNTAX. 35 

Rule 18. — Two or more nouns or pronouns, of the sin- 
gular number, connected together by and, either expressed 
or understood, must have verbs, nouns and pronouns 
agreeing with them in the plural number ; as, Socrates and 
Plato were wise ; they were eminent philosophers. 

Rule 19. — Two negatives in the same sentence are 
equivalent to an affirmative; as, "Such things are not un- 
common ;" that is, they are common. 

Rule 20. — Two objective cases, the one of a person and 
the other of a thing, may follow transitive verbs, of asking, 
teaching, giving, &c. ; as, "He taught me grammar." 

Rule 21. — An objective case may follow passive verbs, 
of asking, giving, teaching, &c. ; as, "I was taught gram- 
mar." 

Rule 22. — Home, and nouns signifying which way, how 
far, how long, or time when, &c, are in the objective case ; 
a preposition being understood. 

Rule 23. — The conjunction disjunctive has an effect 
contrary to that of the conjunction copulative; for, as the 
verb, noun or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms 
taken separately, it must be in the singular number ; as, 
"Ignorance or negligence has caused the mistake;" 
"John, James, or Joseph intendsto accompany me." 

Rule 24, Part 1. — The relative is the nominative case to 
the verb, when no nominative case comes between it and 
the verb; as, "The master ivho taught us;" "The trees 
which were planted." 

Part 2. — But when a nominative case comes between the 
relative and the verb, the relative is governed by some 
word in its own member of the sentence ; as, "He who pre- 
serves me, to whom I owe my being, ivhose I am, and whom 
I serve, is eternal." 

Rule 25. — When the relative is preceded by two nomi- 



36 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

natives of different persons, the relative and verb may 
agree in person with either, according to the sense ; as, "I 
am the man ivho command you;" or, "I am the man who 
commands you." 

Rule 26. — In the use of words and phrases which, in 
point of time, relate to each other, a due regard to that re 
lation should be observed. Instead of saying, "The Lord 
hath given, and the Lord hath taken away," we should say, 
"The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away." Instead 
of, "I remember the family more than twenty years," it 
should be, "I have remembered the family more than twenty 
years." 

Rule 27. — Adverbs, though the}' have no government of 
case, tense, &c, require an appropriate situation in the 
sentence, viz: for the most part, before adjectives, after 
verbs, active or neuter, and frequently between the auxil- 
iary and the verb ; as, "He made a very sensible discourse ; 
he spoke unaffectedly and forcibly, and was attentively 
heard by the whole assembty." 

Rule 28. — Some conjunctions require the indicative, 
some the subjunctive mood after them. It is a general 
rule, that when something contingent or doubtful is im- 
plied, the subjunctive ought to be used; as, "If I were to 
write, he would not regard it;" "He will not be pardoned, 
unless he repent." 

Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute nature 
require the indicative mood. "As virtue advances, so vice 
recedes;" "He is healthy, because he is temperate." 

Rule 29. — When the qualities of different things are 
compared, the latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the 
conjunction than or as, but agrees with the verb, or is gov- 
erned by the verb or the preposition, expressed or under- 
stood ; as, "Thou art wiser than I ;" that is, "than I am." 



37 



"They loved .him more than me ;" that is, "more than they 
loved me." "The sentiment is well expressed by Plato, 
but much better by Solomon than him;" that is, "than by 
him." 

Rule 30. — To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to ex- 
press our ideas in a few words, an ellipsis, or omission of 
some words, is frequently admitted. Instead of saying, "He 
was a learned man, he was a wise man, and he was a good 
man," we make use of the ellipsis, and say, "He was a 
learned, wise and good man." 

When the omission of words would obscure the sentence, 
weaken its force, or be attended with an impropriety, they 
must be expressed. In the sentence, "We are apt to .love 
who love us," the word them should be supplied. "A 
beautiful field and trees," is not proper language. It 
should be, "Beautiful fields and trees," or, "A beautiful 
field and fine trees." 

Rule 31. — All the parts of a sentence should correspond 
to each other; a regular and dependent construction, 
throughout, should be carefully preserved. The following 
sentence is, therefore, inaccurate: "He was more beloved, 
but not so much admired as Cinthio." It should be, "He 
was more beloved than Cinthio, but not so much admired." 

The first example under this rule presents a most irregu- 
lar construction, namely, "He was more beloved as Cin- 
thio." The words more and so much are very improperly 
stated as having the same regimen. In correcting such 
sentences, it is not necessary to supply the latter ellipsis ; 
because it cannot lead to any discordant or improper con- 
struction, and the supply would often be harsh or inel- 
egant. 

As the 31st rule comprehends all the preceding rules, it 
may, at the first view, appear to be too general to be use- 



38 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

ful. But, by ranging under it a number of sentences 
peculiarly constructed, we shall perceive that it is calcu- 
lated to ascertain the true grammatical construction of 
many modes of expression, which none of the particular 
rules can sufficiently explain. 

Remark. — For a full amplification and explanation of the 
principles set forth in the 31st rule, see Carroll's Large 
Grammar, page 260. 

Caution. — Beware of those authors who have not scrupled 
to alter, mutilate and torture the true principles of the English 
language, merely to gratify an itching propensity to figure 
in the world as authors, and whose chief aim appears to have 
been to dazzle rather than to instruct. 

The exercise of a little common sense will convince you 
that if a sentence is not simple, it must be compound ; and 
that adjective elements are only perversions of the true prin- 
ciples of the language. Those who assert that there are three 
kinds of sentences viz: simple, complex and compound, and 
that the relative clause, (or any other clause,) is an adjective 
element must certainly have ignored the definitions of the 
words complex, and element. See any standard dictionar} r , in 
which you will find that complex means compound, and that 
element means a part of something. Again, those who assert 
that there are possessive pronouns, only state personal pro- 
nouns in the possessive case. They could with equal pro- 
priety claim that nouns in the possessive case are possessive 
nouns, and that nouns and pronouns in the nominative and 
objective cases, are nominative and objective nouns and pro- 
nouns. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 



CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 

Question. — How are Nouns divided? 

Answer. — Nouns are divided into two general classes, 
Proper and Common. 

Q. — What are proper nouns? 

A. — Proper Nouns are particular names ; that is, 
they are the names of particular individuals of the same 
kind or sort; or the names of particular places; as, John, 
James ; Boston, London. 

Q. — When proper nouns have articles placed before 
them, how are they used? 

A. — When proper nouns have an article placed before 
them, they are used as common nouns; as, "He is the 
Cicero of his age." 

Q. — When a proper noun admits of a plural, what does it 
become? 

A. — When a proper noun admits of a plural, it becomes 
a common noun; as, "The twelve Caesars," or "The seven 
Jameses." 

This is obvious from the fact that a proper noun is in its 
nature, descriptive of one object only, and therefore, essen- 
tially singular. Accordingly the nouns Spaniard, European, 
American, &c, are common nouns as well as their plurals, 
Spaniards, Europeans, Americans, &c. 

Note. — A proper noun should always begin with a capi- 
tal letter. 

Q — What are common nouns, and how are they classed? 

A. — Common Nouns are general names; that is, 
they are names common to all individuals or things, of the 



40 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

same kind or sort ; as, animal, man, tree. They are also 
generic and specific; that is, a generic common noun con- 
tains many specific common nouns, as genus contains many 
species; for instance, the word animal is a generic common 
noun or a genus, and includes many species of common 
nouns ; as lion, tiger, bear, horse, dog, cat, &c. ; so the 
noun tree is a generic common noun, or a gemis, and in- 
cludes many specific common nouns or species ; as oak-tree, 
ash-tree, apple-tree, peach-tree, &c. 

Q. — How are common nouns further classified? 

A. — Some common nouns are further classified as col- 
lective, ABSTRACT, VERBAL and DIMINUTIVE. 

Q. — "What is a collective noun? 

A. — A Collective Noun is the name of a collection 
of objects considered as one ; as army, navy, crowd. A 
collective noun is also called a noun of multitude. 

Q. — What is an abstract noun? 

A. — An Abstract Noun is one which denotes the 
name of a quality apart from the substance to which it be- 
longs ; as goodness, sweetness, beauty, virtue, &c. They are 
chiefly derived from adjectives. 

Q. — What is a verbal noun? 

A. — A Verbal Noun is one derived from a verb ; as 
loving. It is usually called a participial noun. 

Q. — What is a diminutive noun? 

A, — A Diminutive Noun is one derived from an- 
other noun, and expressing some object of the same kind 
but smaller ; as stream, streamlet ; leaf, leaflet ; hill, hillock ; 
duck, duckling; goose, gosling, &c. 

Q. — How may common nouns be used to signify individ- 
uals? 

A. — Common nouns may be used to signify individuals, 
by the addition of articles or pronouns ; as "the boy is stu- 
dious;" "that girl is discreet." 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 41 

Note. — When two or more words are employed to desig- 
nate one individual, they are considered as one name or 
noun — as George Washington; William Henry Harrison. 

Exercises. — Which of the following nouns are proper, 
and which common? Which should begin with a capital 
letter? — remark, austria, empire, country, holland, queen 
victoria, poet, milton. 

Name five proper nouns and ten common nouns, besides 
those in the foregoing list. 

To what kind or class does each of the following common 
nouns belong? — flock, senate, walking, spelling, lambkin, 
islet, whiteness, goodness. 

PROPERTIES OR ATTRIBUTES OF NOUNS. 

Q. — What belong to nouns? 

A. — To nouns belong gender, number, person and case. 

Every noun is of some gender, some number, some per- 
son, and in some case. A noun has the attribute of gender 
from its expressing sex ; of number from its expressing 
unity and plurality ; of person from its expressing the rela- 
tion of the noun to the speaker, and of case from its ex- 
pressing the relation of the noun to some verb, preposition, 
or other noun in the sentence in which it is used. 

I. GENDER. . 

Q.— What is Gender? 

A. — Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to 
sex. 

Q. — How many genders have nouns? 

A. — Nouns have four genders, the masculine, the fem- 
inine, the common and the neuter. 

Q. — What does the masculine gender denote? 

A. — The Masculine Gender denotes the names of 
jnales ; as man, boy, &c. 



42 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

Q. — What does the feminine gender denote? 

A.— The Feminine Gender denotes the names of 
females ; as woman, girl, &c. 

Q. — What does the common gender denote? 

A. — The Common Gender denotes the names of 
such animals as may be either male or female; as parent, 
bird, &c. 

Q. — What does the neuter gender denote? 

A. — The Neuter Gender denotes the names of ob- 
jects which are neither males nor females ; as chair, table, &c. 

Note. — The word neuter means neither. There is a male 
sex and female sex ; neuter gender is merely a grammatical 
term applied to the names of objects which have no distinc- 
tion of sex; so the term common gender is a grammatical 
term applied merely to words, and does not imply any com; 
mon sex. Every noun to which the common gender is ap- 
plied, must be either masculine or feminine. 

Q. — How do nouns naturally neuter become masculine or 
feminine? 

A. — Some nouns naturally neuter, do, by a figure of 
speech called "personification," become masculine or fem- 
inine, as, when we say of the sun "he is setting," and of a 
ship, '■'■she sails well," &c. 

When this animated kind of phraseology is used, it is im- 
possible to give any uniform rule for determining what 
nouns should be considered as masculine, and what fem- 
inine. In general, however, in such cases, nouns become 
masculine which indicate superior strength, energy or firm- 
ness. Those on the contrary are feminine, which indicate 
delicac}'', weakness or timidity, or which are of a passive, 
rather than an active nature. Examples of those which are 
considered masculine, are sun, time, death, winter, war, 
anger, &c. Examples of feminines, are moon, earth, church, 
nature, virtue, spring, &c. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 



43 



MODES OF DISTINGUISHING SEX. 

Q. — In how many ways are the genders of nouns dis- 
tinguished ? 

A. — There are three ways of distinguishing sex: 1, by 
the use of different words ; as man, woman; 2, by differ- 
ence of termination ; as abbot, abbess; 3, by prefixing or 
affixing another word ; as he-goat, she-goat, land-lord, land- 
lady. 

1. — BY THE USE OF DIFFERENT WORDS. 



MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


Bachelor, 
Beau, 


Maid, 

Belle, 


King, 
Lad, 


Queen, 
Lass, 


Boar, 
Boy, 


Sow, 
Girl, 


Lord, 

Male, 


Lady, 
Female, 


Brother, 


Sister, 


Man, 


Woman, 


Buck, 


Doe, 


Master, 


Miss, 


Bull, ^ 




Mister, 


Mistress, or 


Bullock, I 


Cow, 


Mr., 


Mrs., 


Ox, J 




Milter, 


Spawner, 


Steer, 


Heifer, 


Nephew, 


Niece, 


Cock, 


Hen, 


Papa, 


Mamma, 


Colt, 


Filly, 


Ram, 


Ewe, 


Dog, 
Drake, 


Bitch, 
•Duck, 


Songster, 
Sir, 


Songstress, 
Madam, 


Earl, 


Countess, 


Sire, (a horse 


,) Dam, 


Father, 


Mother, 


Sloven, 


Slattern, 


Friar, \ 
Monk, J 
Gander, 
Hart, 


Nun, 

Goose, 
Koe, 


Son, 

Stag, 

Swain, 

Uncle, 


Daughter, 
Hind, 
Nymph, 
Aunt, 


Horse, 


Mare, 


Wizard, 


Witch. 


Husband, 


Wife, 







CARROLL S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



-BY DIFFERENCE OF TERMINATION. 



MASCULINE, 


FEMININE, 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


Abbot, 


Abbess, 


Monitor, 


Monitress, 


Actor, 


Actress, 


Negro, 


Negress, 


Adulterer, 


Adultress, 


Patron, 


Patroness, 


Ambassador, 


Ambassadress, 


Peer, 


Peeress, 


Arbiter, 


Arbitress, 


Poet, 


Poetess, 


Author, 


Authoress, 


Priest, 


Priestess, 


Baron, 


Baroness, 


Prince, 


Princess, 


Benefactor, 


Benefactress, 


Prior, 


Prioress, 


Caterer, 


Cateress, 


Prophet, 


Prophetess, 


Chanter, 


Chantress, 


Protector, 


Protectress, 


Conductor, 


Conductress, 


Shepherd, 


Shepherdess, 


Count, 


Countess, 


Songster, 


Songstress, 


Dauphin, 


Dauphiness, 


Sorcerer, 


Sorceress, 


Deacon, 


Deaconess, 


Tailor, 


Tailoress, 


Director, 


Directress, 


Tiger, 


Tigress, 


Duke, 


Duchess, 


Traitor, 


Traitress, 


Editor, 


Editress, 


Tutor, 


Tutoress, 


Elector, 


Electress, 


Tyrant, 


Tyranness, 


Emperor, 


Empress; 


Viscount, 


Viscountess, 


Enchanter, 


Enchantress, 


Votary, 


Votaress, 


Founder, 


Foundress, 






Giant, 


Giantess, 


Administrator, 


Administratrix 


God, 


Goddess, 


Executor, 


Executrix, 


Governor, 


Governess, 


Heritor, 


Heretrix, 


Heir, 


Heiress, 


Testator, 


Testatrix, 


Host, 


Hostess, 


Hero, 


Heroine, 


Hunter, 


Huntress, 


Landgrave, 


Landgravine, 


Instructor, 


Instructress, 


Bridegroom, 


Bride, 


Jew, 


Jewess, 


Widower, 


Widow, 


Lion, 


Lioness, 


Czar, 


Czarina, 


Marquis, 


Marchioness, 


Don, 


'Donna, 


Mayor, 


Mayoress, 


Sultan, 


Sultana. 


3.— BY 


PREFIXING OR 


AFFIXING ANOTHER WORD. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


Landlord. 


Landlady, 


Man -servant, 


Maid-servant, 


Gentleman, 


Gentle-icoman, 


Male-child, 


Female-child, 


Archduke. 


Archduchess, 


"Peacock, 


"Peahen, 


Schoolmaster, 


Schoolmistress 


, Cocfc-sparrow. 


, i/ew-sparrow, 


He-goat. 


67je-goat, 


Grandfather. 


Grandmother, 


"Male-relative, 


.Fema/e-relative Turkey-cocfc, 


Turkey-Aea. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 45 

Remarks. — When nouns of the common gender are used, 
we may often determine from some circumstance or other, 
whether males or females are referred to, but not from the 
nouns themselves. So far as the nouns are concerned, sex 
is left entirety out of view. It will not do to say that the 
nouns are either masculine and feminine, or masculine or 
feminine. In such a sentence as this, "John visited his 
two cousins," we cannot say that cousins is masculine, for 
both may be females ; we cannot say it is feminine, for both 
may be males ; we cannot say that cousins is mascu- 
line and feminine, for both cousins may be males, or both 
may be females ; we cannot say that the word is masculine 
or feminine, for one cousin may be a male, and the other a 
female. 

2. Some masculines have no corresponding feminines, as 
baker, brewer, &c. A few feminines have no corresponding 
masculines ; as, laundress, brunette, virago, &c. 

3. A collective noun is neuter when it refers not to the 
objects separately, but to the collection as one whole. Thus, 
"The class is large ; it must be divided." "The army de- 
stroyed everything in its course." But when reference is 
made to the objects composing the collection, it takes the 
gender of the individuals referred to. 

EXERCISES. 

Name five nouns of the masculine gender; five of the 
feminine ; five of the common ; and five of the neuter. 
Tell the gender of each of the following nouns : 
Hero, countess, book, toy, ladies, paper, gold, woman, 
lord, master, candle, scissors, lamp, fire, tongs, Jewess, 
priestess, goose, watch, clock, wisdom, whiteness, cousin, 
parent. 



46 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

II. NUMBER. 

Q. — What does the number of nouns show? 
A. — Number shows how many are meant, whether one, 
or more than one. 

Q. — How many numbers have nouns? 

A. — Nouns have two numbers, the singular and the 

PLURAL. 

Q. — What does the singular number express. 

A. — The singular number expresses but one, as boy. 

Q. — What does the plural number mean? 

A. — The plural number means more than one, as boys. 

Q. — What is the regular mode of forming the plural? 

A. — The regular mode of forming the plural, is by ad- 
ding s to the singular, as book, books; page, pages. 

Q. — When is es added to the singular to form the plural ? 

A. — When the singular ends with a sound which cannot 
unite with s, then es is added; as church, churches; box, 
boxes; kiss, kisses; lash, lashes; topaz, topazes. 

Q. — How do nouns ending in o form the plural? 

A. — Nouns ending in o differ as to the mode of forming 
the plural. Some form the plural by adding es. Among 
these are calico, cargo, hero, motto, mulatto, negro , potato , 
tornado, volcano, &c. Others form the plural by adding 
only s. Among these are armadillo, cameo, canto, cento, 
duodecimo, folio, halo, junto, memento, octavo, piano, por- 
tico, 2)>'oviso, quarto, salvo, sirocco, solo, trio, tyro, virtuoso, 
zero, &c. 

Q. — How are nouns ending in forfe made plural? 

A. — Nouns ending in/, or fe, are made plural by chang- 
ing the/ or fe, into ves; as loaf, loaves; life, lives, &c. 

The following form the plural according to the regular 
mode, viz. : brief, chief, dwarf, fife, grief, gulf, hoof, hand- 
kerchief, kerchief, mischief, proof, reproof, roof, safe, scarf, 
strife, surf, turf. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 47 

Q. — How do nouns ending in Jf form the plural? 

A. — Nouns ending in ff, follow the general rule ; as muff, 
muffs; except staff; a stick, which has staves in the plural ; 
staff, a body of officers, has staffs. The compounds of staff 
all have staffs in the plural ; as flagstaff s, tipstaffs, distaffs,&c. 

Q. — How do nouns ending in y form the plural? 

A. — Nouns ending in y after a consonant, are made plural 
by changing y into ies; as lady, ladies; beauty, beauties ; fly , 
flies. . But when the y is preceded by a vowel, the plural is 
formed regularly ; as day, days; delay, delays, &c. 

Q. — How are letters, figures, and other characters used as 
nouns made plural? 

A. — Letters, figures, and other characters, used as nouns, 
are made plural by adding the apostrophe ands; as "dot 
your i's and cross your t's;" "the -J-'s should be trans- 
posed;" "three 6's are equal to two 9's." 

Q. — How are proper nouns and other parts of speech used 
as nouns made plural? 

A. — Proper nouns and other parts of speech used as 
nouns, are made plural in the same manner as common 
nouns of like endings ; as the Pompeys and Ciceros of the 
age ; the ins and outs of office. But proper nouns are 
only pluralized when they refer to a race or family. 

. In words of this kind ending in y after a consonant, the 
usage is not uniform. Some simply add s ; as the Marys 
and Marthas; the whys and wherefores. Some change the 
y into ies; as the two Sicillies, the Alleghanies; flve-tiventies. 

Q. — What nouns are irregular in the plural? 

A. — The following nouns are irregular in the plural : 



SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Man, 


Men, 


Tooth, 


Teeth, 


Woman, 


Women, 


Goose, 


Geese, 


Child, 


Children, 


Mouse, 


Mice, 


Ox, 


Oxen, 


Louse, 


Lice, 


Foot, 


Feet, 


Penny, 


Pence, 


Die, 


Dice. 







<18 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

Q. — What nouns have a regular and irregular form of the 
plural, with different significations? 

A. — Some nouns have both a regular and irregular form 
of the plural, but with different significations, as the follow- 
ing: 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Brother, (one of the same family), Brothers, 

Brother, (one of the same society), Brethren, 

Sow, (an individual animal), Sows, 

Sow or Swine, (the species), Swine, 

Die, (a small cube for gaming), Dice, 

Die, (a stamp for coining), Dies, 

Index, (a table of reference), Indexes, 

Index, (a character in algebra), Indices, 

Penny, (a coin), Pence, 

Penny, (a sum of value) , Pennies, 

Genius, (a person of genius), Geniuses, 

Genius, (a spirit), Genii, 

Cow, (an animal), Cows, 

Cow, (as a species), Kine. 

Q. — How do the compounds of man form the plural? 

A. — The compounds of man form the plural in the same 
manner as the simple words ; as, alderman, aldermen. 

Care should be taken, however, not to confound com- 
pounds of the words man with words that end in those 
three letters. Thus, States-man is really compounded of 
two words, States and man; but Turcoman, Mussulman, 
German, are simple words like talisman, ottoman, (a kind 
of seat), and form the plural regularly, thus; Turcomans, 
Mussulmans, Germans, talismans, ottomans. 

Q. — How do compound words consisting of a noun and 
an adjective form the plural? 

A. — Compounds consisting of a noun and an adjective, 
connected by a hyphen, take the sign of the plural upon the 
noun only; as court-martial, courts-martial. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 49 

Q. — How do compounds consisting of two or more words 
connected by a hyphen form the plural? 

A. — Compounds consisting of two or more words con- 
nected by a hyphen are sometimes composed of two nouns, 
one of which is used in the sense of an adjective ; as man- 
trap, in which the word man is really an adjective, or of a 
noun and some combination of words having the force of an 
adjective, a,s father-in-law, in which the combination in-law 
has the force of an adjective, as much so as the word legal. 
In all these compounds, the sign of the plural is added to 
that part of the compound word which really constitutes the 
noun; as man-traps, fathers-in-law. 

Q. — How is man-servant and woman-servant made plural? 

Q. — Man-servant changes both the simple words ; as men- 
servants; so, women- servants. 

Q. — How is the possessive case of compounds formed? 

A. — In forming the possessive case of such compounds, 
the rule is different, the sign of the possessive case being 
uniformly added to the end of the compound expression ; 
as, singular, father-in-law, plural, fathers-in-law, possessive 
case, father-in-law' s. 

Q. — How do the compounds of full form the plural? 

A. — The compounds of full form the plural regularly ; as, 
mouth-ful, mouth-fuls; spoon-ful, spoon-fuls ; bucketful, 
bucket-fids. 

Q. — How do words adopted from foreign languages form 
the plural ? 

A. — "Words adopted from foreign languages generally re- 
tain their original plural. As a general rule nouns ending 
in um or on change these terminations to a in the plural ; 
but those ending in is in the singular, change it into es in 
the plural. The following are the most common, of 
which some also have a regular English plural ; these are 
marked R: 



50 



CARROLL S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



SINGULAR. 

Animalculum, 

Antithesis, 

Apex, 

Appendix, 

Arcanum, 

Automatum, 

Axis, 

Bandit, 

Beau, 

Basis, 

Cherub, 

Calx, 

Crisis, 

Criterion, 

Datum, 

Desideratum, 

Effluvium, 

Ellipsis, 

Emphasis, 

Encomium, 

Erratum, 

Focus, 

Formula, 

Genus, 

Q. — What nouns are for the most part confined to 
singular number? 

A. — Names of metals, virtues, vices, arts, sciences, 
struct qualities, and of things that are either weighed or 
measured, are for the most part cofined to the singular 
number ; as, gold, goodness, idleness, wisdom, whiteness, 
bread, beer, beef, &c., except when different sorts are 
meant; as, tvines, teas, &c. 

Q. — "What nouns are used only in the plural? 

A. — Some nouns are used only in the plural ; as, an- 
nals, antipodes, archives, assets, billiards, cattle, clothes, 
goods, measles, nuptials, oats, thanks, tidings, victuals, 



PLURAL. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Animalcula, 


Hiatus, 


Hiates, R, 


Antitheses, 


Hippopotamus, 


Hippopotami, 


Apices, 


Hypothesis, 


Hypotheses, 


Appendices, R 


, Ignis f atuus, 


Ignis fatui, 


Arcana, 


Lamina, 


Laminae, 


Automata, 


Magus, 


Magi, 


Axes, 


Medium, 


Media, R, 


Banditti, R, 


Memorandum, 


Memoranda, R, 


Beaux, R, 


Metamorphosis. 


i Metamorphoses 


Bases, 


Monsieur, 


Messieurs, 


Cherubim, R, 


Parenthesis, 


Parentheses, 


Calces, 


Phenomenon, 


Phenomena, R. 


Crises, 


Radius, 


Radii, 


Criteria, 


Series, 


Series, 


Data, 


Seraph, 


Seraphim, R, 


Desiderata, 


Species, 


Species, 


Effluvia, 


Stamen, 


Stamina, R, 


Ellipses, 


Stimulus, 


Stimuli, 


Emphases, 


Stratum, 


Strata, 


Encomia, R, 


Superfices, 


Superfices, 


Errata, 


Thesis, 


Theses, 


Foci, 


Vertex, 


Vertices, 


Formula?, 


Vortex, 


Vortices, 


Genera, 


Virtuoso, 


Virtuosi. 



the 



a6- 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 51 

wages, &c, also the names of things consisting of two 
parts ; as bellows, scissors, tongs, pincers, trowsers, tweez- 
ers, &c. 

Q. — What nouns are alike in both numbers? 

A. — Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as deer, 
sheep, trout, salmon, &c. ; also several foreign words, as 
apparatus, series, species, &e. The singular of such words 
may generally be distinguished by the use of the indefinite 
article a or an; as, a series, a deer, a trout, an ap- 
paratus, &c. 

Q. — Are any nouns sometimes alike in both numbers, 
which at other times have a regular form for the plural? 

A. — Many nouns are sometimes alike in both numbers, 
and at other times have a regular form for the plural. 
Among these are, head, brace, dozen, score, &c. Thus we 
say, "He bought twenty dozen of them," and "He bought 
them in dozens." 

Q. — Are any nouns plural in form, that may be either 
singular or plural in meaning? 

A. — Some nouns are plural in form, but either singular 
or plural in meaning. Among them are amends, means, 
news, riches, &c, also the names of certain sciences, as 
conies, ethics, optics, mathematics, &c. 

Q. — How are the nouns Means, Amends, News, Riches, 
Alms, and Thanhs considered with regard to number? 

A. — Means and amends are singular when they refer to 
only one object, plural when they refer to more than one. 
The singular mean is also used to signify strictly the middle 
between two extremes. News is rarely found with a plural 
signification. Riches has both a singular and a plural sig- 
nification. Alms is strictly singular. Thanhs is considered 
a plural noun, though used to denote one expression of 
gratitude. 



52 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

EXERCISES ON NUMBER. 

Tell the number of each of the following nouns : 
Book, knife, pens, chairs, feet, hands, ox, mice, geese, 
oxen, leaf, wives, wife, women, men. 

Give the plural, and the rule for forming it, of table, door, 
step, stove, oven, monarch, face, place, case, hat, box, fox, 
miss, wish, lass, loss, inch, watch, atlas, hero, cargo, veto, 
potato, folio, nuncio, cameo, calf, self, life, story, lady, 
fancy, day, play, chimney, child, man, handful, cupful, 
sister-in-law, court-martial, commander-in-chief, antithesis, 
desideratum. 

in. PERSON. 

Q. — What is person? 

A. — Person is the distinction of nouns in their relation 
to the speaker. 

Q. — How many persons have nouns? 

A. — Nouns have three persons, first, second and third? 

Q. — What does the first person denote? 

A. — The first person denotes the speaker; as "I, John, 
saw it." "I, the Governor, make this proclamation." 
"We men axe sinful." 

Q. — What does the second person denote? 

A. — The second person denotes the person spoken to or 
addressed; as '■'■James, come to me;" "children, obey your 
parents." 

Q. — What does the third person denote? 

A. — The third person denotes the name of the person or 
thing spoken of; as "John saw it;" "The men have 
come ;" "James gave me an apple." 

Note. — Instances of the use of nouns in the first person 
are not common, and as no change in the form of the word 
takes place in consequence of the person ; some grammarians 
omit it altogether in speaking of nouns. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 53 

Q. — What is requisite, in order to understand the per- 
sons of nouns? 

A. — If you wish to understand the persons of nouns, a 
little sober thought is requisite, and by exercising it, all 
difficulties will be removed.. If I say, my son, have you 
seen the young man? You perceive that the noun son, is of 
the second person, because I address myself to him ; that 
is, he is spoken to; but the noun man, is of the third per- 
son, because he is spoken of. Again, if I say, young man, 
have you seen my son? man is of the second person, and son 
is of the third. 

Q. — What is always associated with a noun of the first 
person? 

A. — The pronoun I, (or some variation of it,) and a 
noun of the first person are inseparable ; as I, John; we, 
men. 

Q. — What does common sense teach us, with regard to 
the persons of nouns, in the use of language? 

A. — If we consider the use of language, we know that 
without a speaker it would be of no use, and that it would 
be equally useless to a speaker, without a hearer. Hence, 
the speaker is entitled to the first place in the use of lan- 
guage, and the hearer or person spoken to, is equally en- 
titled to the second place, and as these can speak of per- 
sons or things, either present or absent, so the third person 
is equally appropriate, as the person of the name, of the 
person or thing spoken of. 

Exercises. — In the following sentences, tell which are 
nouns, and say of each whether it is proper or common, and 
what is its gender, number and person: 

Mary, you are a good girl. I, John Thomson, hereby 
certify. You, John Thomson, certify. John Thomson cer- 
tifies. Consistency, thou art a jewel. Paul, thou art be- 
side thyself. I, John, saw the holy city, New Jerusalem. 



54 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

IV. CASE. 

Q. — What does case signify? 

A. — Case signifies the relation which nouns and pro- 
nouns have to other words in the same sentence. 

Q. — How many cases have nouns? 

A. — In English, nouns have three cases ; the nominative, 
the possessive, and the objective. 

I. NOMINATIVE CASE. 

Q. — When is a noun or pronoun in the nominative case ; 
and how can it be found ? 

A. — When a noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb, it 
is in the nominative case ; as, "John runs;" "the dog was 
killed;" "He goes to school." 

Remark. — The subject of a verb is that of which some- 
thing is said or declared. The subject or nominative of the 
verb may be found by putting "who" or "what" before the 
verb and asking the question. Thus, if we ask, "Who 
runs?" the answer will be, "John;" if we ask, Wliat was 
killed? the answer will be, " Hie clog;" and if we ask, " Wlw 
goes to school?" the answer will be, "He," — John, dog, and 
He, then, are in the nominative case. 

Q. — What does the word nominative mean, and in what 
case may all nouns be considered, regardless of sentences? 

A. — The word nominative means naming, the name of 
any noun, may be considered in the nominative case ; hence, 
the nominative case is sometimes used independent of any 
verb, especially when an object or person is addressed ; as, 
"Listen, earth! "Jane, Mary, is industrious." Here, 
earth and Jane are said to be in the nominative case inde- 
pendent. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 55 

Exercises. — Find the subject of each verb in the following 
sentences, and say of each whether it is proper or common, 
and what is its gender, number and person : 

Peter whistles. Jane sings. The horse gallops. Birds 
fly in the air. Whales swim in the sea. The traveler killed 
the robber. The rabbit jumped into the dog's mouth. The 
snake bit the dog. The robber was killed by the traveler. 

II. POSSESSIVE CASE. 

Q. — What does the possessive case denote? 

A. — The possessive case is that which denotes ownership, 
or possession ; as, "John's hat;" William's coat;" "the 
lady's fan." 

Q. — How is the possessive case of singular nouns formed? 

A. — The possessive case in the singular number is usually 
formed by adding an ( ' ) and the letter s to the nominative ; 
as, boy, boy's ; William, William's. 

Q. — How is the possessive case of plural nouns formed? 

A. — The possessive plural is formed from the nominative 
plural, by adding an apostrophe only when the plural ends in 
s, and by adding both the apostrophe and s, when the plural 
does not end in s; as "boys, boys';" "men, men's;" or, 
"boys' books;" "men's hats." 

Q. — When the nouns are alike in the singular and plural 
numbers, how is the possessive case formed? 

A. — When the nominative singular and the nominative 
plural are alike, someplace the apostrophe after the s in the 
possessive plural, to distinguish it from the possessive singu- 
lar; as, singular, deer's; plural, deers'. 

Q. — When nouns in the singular end in s, ss, or nee, how 
is the possessive case formed? 

A. — Sometimes when nouns in the singular end in s, ss, 
or nee, the possessive is formed by adding the apostrophe 



56 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

only; as, "Archimides' screw;" "For goodness' sake;'' 
"For conscience' sake;" because an additional s would 
occasion too much of a hissing sound, or increase the diffi- 
culty of pronunciation. 

EXERCISES. 

Form the possessive case of each of the following nouns, 
and say of each whether it is proper or common ; and what 
is its gender, number and person. 

Man, boy, girl, women, men, boys, girls, John, James, 
Thomas, beauty, ox, master, mistress, councilman, ladies, 
alderman, aldermen, landlady, dray\ calf, maid-of- all-work. 

III. OBJECTIVE CASE. 

Q. — What is the objective case of nouns and pronouns? 

A. — The objective case is that in which the noun is the ob- 
ject of action or relation ; that is, of some verb or preposition ; 
as, "John struck William; "Thomas jumped over the log." 

Here William is the object of the verb struck; and log is 
the object of the preposition over. 

Q. — What cases of nouns are alike in form? 

A. — The nominative and objective cases of nouns are 
alike in form, but not of pronouns. 

Q. — How is the object of an action, or relation, known? 

A. — The object may generally be known by its forming 
the answer to the question made by putting whom or what 
after the verb or preposition. Thus, "John struck whom?" 
Answer — William. "Thomas jumped over what?" An- 
swer — The log. 

And again the noun is in the objective case when me, us, 
him or them will make sense in its place ; as, John struck 
me; John struck us; John struck him; John struck them. 

Q. — What is often used instead of the %)ossessive case? 

A. — The objective case, with the preposition of, is often 
used instead of the possessive case. Thus, instead of 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 57 

"God's power," we may say, "The power of God." It is 
often more correct to employ this construction than to use 
the possessive. 

EXERCISES. 

Find the subject of each verb in the following sentences ; 
also the object of each verb and preposition; and tell the 
gender, number and person of each. 

The snake bit the dog. The wolf bit the horse. John 
threw a stone. The musician broke his fiddle. Mary threw 
the book into the fire. George struck a lamp-post with his 
fist. The fox ran through the thicket. Charles caught a 
fish in the lake. 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
Q. — What is the declension of nouns? 
A. — Declension is the regular arrangement of nouns 
according to their numbers and cases. 

EXAMPLES. 





1. Box. 






3. Man. 




Singular. 


Plural. 




Singular. Plural. 


Nom. 


Boy, 


Boys, 


Jom. 


Man, Men, 


Pos. 


Boy's, 


Boys', 


Pos. 


Man's, Men's, 


Obj. 


Boy, 
2. Ladt 


Boys. 


Obj. 


Man, Men. 
4. Box. 


Nom. 


Lady, 


Ladies, 


Jfom. 


Box, Boxes, 


Pos. 


Lady's, 


Ladies', 


Pos. 


Box's, Boxes', 


Obj. 


Lady, 


Ladies. 


Obj. 


Box, Boxes. 



Remark. — For a full explanation of the cases of nouns 
and pronouns, see Carroll's Large Grammar, page 57, &c. 

PARSING. 

Q. — What is meant by parsing ivords and sentences? 
A. — To parse a word is to tell its properties, and its rela- 
tions to other words ; to parse a sentence is to tell the 



58 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

several parts of speech of which it is composed, and their 
relations to one another. 

RULE I. 

The Possessive Case is governed by the following noun. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Parse "John's knife." 

Model. — John's is a noun, because it is a name ; proper, 
because it is a particular name ; masculine gender — it is the 
name of a male ; third person — it is spoken of ; singular 
number — it means but one ; in the possessive case, because it 
implies possession or ownership, and is governed by the 
noun knife, according to 

Rule 1. The possessive case is governed by the following 
noun. 

Knife is a noun, because it is a name ; common — it is a 
general name ; neuter gender — it is neither male nor female ; 
third person — it is spoken of ; singular number — it means 
but one ; and in the nominative case, because it may be the 
subject of a verb. 

Let the learner parse the foregoing, till the mode of pars- 
ing the noun is so familiar to him that he can do it readily, 
without looking in the book. 

He may then take the following exercises and parse them 
in a similar manner. 

"Peter's cap." "Stephen's coat." "Boy's hats." 
"John's slate." "Father's house." "Brother's knife." 

ARTICLES. 

Q. — What are articles? 

A. — Articles are words put before nouns, to point 
them out, or to limit their meaning ; as, a man, the woman. 
Q. — How many articles are there, and which are they? 
A. — There are only two articles, a or an, and the. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 59 

Q. — What is a or an called? 

A. — A or an is called the indefinite article. 

Q.— What is the called? 

A. — The is called the definite article. 

Q. — Why is the article a called indefinite? 

A. — The article a is called indefinite, because it means 
no particular person or thing; as, "a house;" "a man;" 
that is, any house, an}' man. 

Q. — Why is the article the called definite? 

A. — The article" the is called definite, because it means 
some particular person or thing; as, "the house," "the 
man;" meaning some particular house ; some particular 
man. 

Q. — When does the article a become an? 

A. — The article a becomes an before a word beginning 
with a vowel sound; as, a man, an old man, an honest 
man. 

Q. — What is the true distinction in the use of a or an? 

A. — Sometimes a vowel at the beginning of a word has 
the sound of a consonant. Thus o in one is pronounced as 
if the word began with the consonant sound of to; u in unit 
is pronounced as if the word began with the consonant 
sound of y. In such cases the article should be a. On the 
other hand, the consonant h at the beginning of a word is 
sometimes not sounded, as in honest (pronounced onest). 
In that case the article should be an. Therefore, in deter- 
mining whether to use a, or to use an, we should notice not 
the letter, but the real sound, with which the next word be- 
gins. An is used before the words heroic and historical. 

Q. — What does A or an mean? 

A. — A or an means one, and is used only before the sin- 
gular number ; as, a man, an a-pple. Hence, 



60 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

RULE II. 

TJie indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns of the singu- 
lar number. 

Q. — What exceptions to Rule II? 

A. — When the adjective few, great many, dozen, hundred, 
thousand, &c, come between the noun and article, the 
noun to which the indefinite article belongs, is plural ; as, 
"a few men, "a great many men," &c. 

The article the is used before both numbers ; as, the man, 
the men. Hence, 

RULE III. 

77ie definite article The belongs to nouns of the singular or 
plural number. 

Remark. — Some nouns in the singular number without an 
article before them are taken in the widest sense for a 
whole species; as, "fruit is abundant;" '■'■gold is heavy;" 
'■'■man is born to trouble." Here we mean fruit and gold 
in general; and all men, or mankind. This usage, however, 
is by no means universal. On the contrary, in many words, 
the article is used for this very purpose ; as the horse, for 
horses is general. 

Note 1. — The article is omitted before nouns implying 
the different virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, 
arts, metals, herbs, &c. ; as, '■'modesty is becoming;" 
'■'■falsehood is odious;" '■'Grammar is useful," &c. 

2. — The article is not prefixed to proper nouns ; as, 
Barron killed Decatur ; except by way of eminence, or for 
the sake of distinguishing a particular family, or when 
some noun is understood ; as, "He is not a Franklin ; he is 
a Lee, or of the family of the Lees ;" "We sailed down the 
river Missouri." 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 61 

3. — In referring to many individuals, when we wish to 
bring each separately under consideration, the indefinite 
article is sometimes placed between the adjective many and 
a single noun ; as, "Where many a rosebud rears its blush- 
ing head ;" "Full many & flower is born to blush unseen." 

4. — The definite article the is frequently applied to ad- 
verbs in the comparative or superlative degree; as, "The 
more I examine it, the better I like it ; I like this the least 
of any." 

For a full explanation of why the article a or an is 
called indefinite, and the article the definite, see Carroll's 
Large Grammar, page 61. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Parse. — A hand. The boy. 

Model. — A is an article, a word placed before nouns to 
limit their meaning — indefinite ; it means no particular hand 
— and belongs to the noun hand, according to 

Rule 2. — The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns 
of the singular number. 

Hand is a noun, because it is a name ; common — it is a 
general name ; neuter gender — it is neither male nor female ; 
third person — it is spoken of ; singular number — it means 
but one ; and in the nominative case, because it may be the 
subject of a verb. 

The is an article, a word placed before nouns to limit 
their meaning — definite ; it means a particular boy, and be- 
longs to the noun boy, according to 

Rule 3. — The definite article the belongs to nouns of the 
singular or plural number. 

Boy is a noun, it is a name ; common — it is a general 
name ; masculine gender — it is the name of a male ; third 



62 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

person — it is spoken of ; singular number — it means but 
one ; and in the nominative case, because it may be the 
subject of a verb. 

Parse the following : 

"Amouth." "An insect." "The mice." "The boy's 
hat." "A mite." "An ounce." "The men." "The 
girl's room." 

ADJECTIVES. 

Q. — What is an adjective? 

A. — An Adjective is a word joined to a noun to de- 
scribe or qualify it; as, "an obedient son," "a wise man." 

Q. — For what is the adjective varied, and how many de- 
grees of comparison are there ? 

A. — In English, an adjective is varied only to express 
the degrees of comparison. There are three degrees of 
comparison ; the positive, the comparative, and the superla- 
tive. 

Q. — What does the positive degree do? 

A. — The positive degree simply describes an object with- 
out any comparison; as, "John is good," "a sweet apple." 

Q. — What does the comparative degree do, and what does 
it always imply ? 

A. — The comparative degree increases or lessens the 
positive in meaning; as, "William is better than John," 
and it implies a comparison between two persons or things. 

Q. — What does the superlative degree do, and what does 
it imply? 

A. — The superlative degree increases or lessens the posi- 
tive to the highest or lowest degree; as, "Thomas is the 
best; "Walter is the worst." It implies a comparison be- 
tween three or more. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 63 

Q. — How are monosyllables usually compared? 

A. — The simple word or positive, if a monosyllable, be- 
comes the comparative by adding r or er, and the superla- 
tive by adding st or est, to the end of it; as, wise, toiser, 
wisest : great, greater, greatest. 

Q. — How are adjectives of more than one syllable usually 
compared? 

A. — In words of more than one syllable, the comparison 
is usually made by placing the adverbs more and most be- 
fore the positive ; as, benevolent, more benevolent, most be- 
nevolent. 

The comparison is also formed by the adverbs, less, and 
least; as wise, less wise, least wise. 

Q. — How are dissyllables ending in y and in le after a 
mute compared? 

A. — Dissyllables ending in y ; as, happy, lovely, and in le, 
after a mute ; as, able, ample, or accented on the last syl- 
lable ; as, discreet, polite; easily admit of er and est; as, 
happy, happier, happiest; able, abler, ablest; polite, politer, 
politest. Words of more than two syllables hardly ever ad- 
mit of these terminations. 

Q. — In what other way is the superlative degree formed? 

A. — In some words, the superlative is formed by adding 
the adverb most to the end of them; as, nethermost, top- 
most, uttermost, uppermost. 

Q. — What kind of adjectives do not admit of compari- 
son? 

A. — Some adjectives, having in themselves a superlative 
signification, do not admit of comparison ; as, extreme, per- 
fect, right, ivrong, straight, round, square, infinite, supreme, 
omnipotent, eternal, &c. 

Q. — What is the effect of ish when added to adjectives? 

A. — By adding ish to adjectives, we have a slight degree 



64 CARROLL* S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

of comparison below the positive ; as black, blackish; salt, 
saltish; white, whiteish; siveet, sweetish. 

Q. — What do the adverbs very, and rather express? 

A. — Very expresses a degree of quality, but not the 
highest; as, "good," '■'•very good." Rather expresses a 
degree of quality, but not the lowest; as, "little," "ratJier 
little." 

Q. — What are numeral adjectives? 

A. — Words used in counting and numbering are called 
numeral adjectives; as, one, two, three; first, second, third. 

Q. — How many kinds of numeral adjectives are there? 

A. — Numeral adjectives are of two kinds : Cardinal and 
Ordinal. They are not compared. 

Q. — What do cardinal adjectives denote? 

A. — The Cardinal Adjectives denote how many ; as, 
one, two, three, four , five, &c. 

Q. — What do ordinal adjectives denote? 

A. — The Ordinal Adjectives denote in what order ; as, 
first, second, third, &c. 

Q. — When do adjectives become nouns? 

A. — An adjective put without a noun, with the definite 
article before it, becomes a noun in sense and meaning, and 
may be considered as such in parsing; as, "Providence re- 
wards the good, and punishes the bad." 

Q. — What is said of double comparatives and superla- 
tives? 

A. — Double Comparatives and Superlatives, since they 
add nothing to the sense, should be avoided ; as ivorser, 
more wiser, lesser, supremest, &c. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 



65 



Q. — What adjectives are compared 


irregularly ? 


A. — The following adjectives are compared irregularly : 


Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good, 


Better, 


Best, 


Bad, evil or ill, 


Worse, 


Worst, 


Little, 


Less, 


Least, 


Much or many, 


More, 


Most, 


Late, 


Later, 


Latest or last, 


Near, 


Nearer, 


Nearest or next, 


Far, 


Farther, 


Farthest, 


Fore, 


Former, 


Foremost or first, 


Old, 


Older or elder, 


Oldest or eldest. 



Q. — How are the adjectives much, and many, elder, and 
eldest, older and oldest, applied? 

A. — Much is applied to things weighed or measured ; 
many to those that are numbered. Elder and eldest are ap- 
plied to persons only ; older and oldest to either persons or 
things. 

Q. — What rule is applied to adjectives? 

A. — Rule iv. — Adjectives belong to the nouns which they 
describe. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Parse "A wiser child." 

Model. — A is an article, a word placed before nouns to 
limit their meaning ; Indefinite — it means no particular child, 
and belongs to the noun child, according to 

Rule II. — The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns 
of the singular number. 

Wiser is an adjective, a word joined with a noun, to 
describe or qualify it ; "positive wise; comparative wiser; 
superlative wisest;" — made in the comparative degree; 
and belongs to the noun child, according to 

Rule IV. — Adjectives belong to the nouns which they 
describe. 



66 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

Child is a noun, it is a name ; common — it is a general 
name ; common gender — it may be either male or female ; 
third person — it is spoken of ; singular number, it means 
but one, and is in the nominative case, because it may be 
the subject of a verb. 

Parse the following : 

"A dutiful son." "An ugly child." "The whiter cloth." 
"A large, convenient, and airy habitation." "Johnson's 
large dictionary." 

PRONOUNS. 

Q. — What is a pronoun? 

A. — A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to 
avoid a disagreeable repetition of the noun ; as, "The man is 
happy, he lives virtuously." 

Q. — Why called personal pronouns ; which are they, what 
have the}'', and to which is gender applied? 

A. — A Personal Pronoun is so called, because it al- 
ways represents the same person. There are five of them — I, 
thou or you, He, she, and it, with their plurals, We, ye 
or you, they. They have person, number, and case, like 
nouns, and those of the third person singular have gender 
also. 

Q. — Which are the singular pronouns, and what are 
the genders of the third person singular? 

A. — lis the first person, thou or you the second, and he, 
she, or it the third. He is masculine, She is feminine and 
it is neuter. 

Q. — How many cases and numbers have pronouns? 

A. — Pronouns, like nouns, have three cases — the nomi- 
native, the possessive, and the objective ; and two numbers 
— the singular and plural ; and they are declined. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 67 

DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

FIRST PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. 

Norn. I, We, 

Pos. My or mine, Ours or our, 

Obj. Me, Us. 

SECOND PERSON. 

Singular. Singular. Plural, 

Nom. Thou, \ r Nom. You, Ye or you, 

Pos. Thy or Thine, > or < Pos. Your or Yours, Your or yours, 
Obj. Thee, j I Obj. You, You. 



THIRD PERSON, MASCULINE GENDER. 

Singular. Plural. 



Nom. He, 


They, 


Pos. His, 


Theirs or their 


Obj. Him, 


Them. 


THIRD PERSON, 


FEMININE GENDER. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. She, 


They, 


Pos. Hers or her, 


Theirs or their, 


Obj. Her, 


Them. 



THIRD PERSON, NEUTER GENDER. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. It, They, 

Pos. Its, Theirs or their, 

Obj. It. Them. 

Q. — What personal pronouns are called leading pronouns : 
and why are they so called? 

A. — The pronouns of the nominative singular, are called 
leading pronouns. They are I, thou, or you, he, she, and 
it. The others are variations of these five. 



68 Carroll's elementary grammar. 



and thine, instead of my and thy, were formerty 
used in the solemn style, before nouns and adjectives begin- 
ning with a vowel, or silent h; as, "Blot out all mine 
iniquities." 

Q. — Why is gender applied to the third person singular, 
and not to the fij-st and second person singular? 

A. — In the third person there is a different pronoun for 
each gender in the singular number ; but in the first and 
second the same pronouns are used, whatever may be the 
gender. The sex of the speaker and person addressed is sup- 
posed to be known from their being present, and from other 
circumstances. 

Q. — What is the distinction between the two forms of the 
possessive case? 

A. — Where there are two forms of the possessive case, 
one of them is used when the name of the thing possessed 
is expressed ; the other when it is omitted. Thus : "That 
is your book, but this is mine;" "This is my book, but 
that is y oxers. ' ' 

Q. — When the plural we is used instead of the singular 2, 
what should be the number of the verb? 

A. — In the first person, the plural v:e is often used for 
the singular I, by Editors, Reviewers, Governors, &c. 
Where a plural pronoun is thus used, while only one person 
is meant, the verb as well as the pronoun must be plural. 
Thus, ice are, not we is; you were, not you was. 

Q. — What is the use of the adjective own when connected 
with the possessive case of personal pronouns? 

A. — The adjective own is frequently found connected 
with the possessive case of the personal pronoun, in order 
to make the possessive emphatic; thus, "It is your oivn 
fault." 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 69 

Q. — How is the pronoun it used indefinitely? 

A. — The pronoun it, besides its use as the neuter pro- 
noun of the third person, is also used indefinitely with the 
verb to be, in the third person singular, for all genders, 
numbers, and persons ; as, It is I, it is we, it is you, it is 
they, it was she, &c. 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Q. — How are compound personal pronouns formed? 

A. — When the word self in the singular (and selves in the 
plural), is added to the personal pronouns, they are called 
compound personal pronouns. Thus: myself, ourselves; 
thyself ox yourself, yourselves; himself, herself, itself, them- 
selves. 

Q. — What are these compound pronouns used for? 

A. — These pronouns are used for the sake of emphasis 
or distinction ; or when an action is represented as exerted 
upon the agent ; as "I myself did it ;" "He killed himself." 

Q. — Have they the possessive case? 

A. — They have no possessive case, and the objective is 
the same as the nominative. 

Q. — Are those compound pronouns ever formed with pro- 
nouns in the nominative case? 

A. — They are not. In those of the first and second per- 
sons, self and selves are added to the possess ive case of the 
simple pronouns ; in those of the third person self and selves 
are added to the objective case. 

Q. — What is the gender, number and person of pro- 
nouns? 

A. — Pronouns have the same gender, number and person 
that the nouns for which they stand have. Hence, 

RULE V. 

Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, 
in gender, number and person. 



70 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

Remark. — For a full explanation of the origin of the pro- 
noun, see Carroll's Large Grammar, page 68. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Parse "his," in the sentence, John lost his book. 

Model. — His is a pronoun, a word used instead of a 
noun ; personal — it always represents the same person ; 
masculine gender, singular number, and third person ; be- 
cause "John, "the noun for which it stands is — with which 
it agrees, according to 

Rule V. — Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which 
they stand in gender, number and person. 

In the possessive case, because it implies possession or 
ownership, and is governed by the noun book, according to 

Rule 1. — The possessive case is governed by the follow- 
ing noun. Declined — Singular number, nominative, he, 
possessive, his, objective, him. Plural number, nominative, 
thejr, possessive, their' s or their, objective, them. 

Parse all articles, nouns and pronouns in the following 
sentences: 

"He went to school." "She went to her task." "Wil- 
liam went to his play." "The book was mine, but now it 
is your's." 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUXS. 

In the sentence, "Both wealth and poverty are tempta- 
tions ; that tends to excite pride, this discontent ;" you per- 
ceive that the word that represents wealth, and the word 
this poverty. This and that do, therefore, resemble pro- 
nouns, and may, for this reason, be called pronouns. 

When I say, "This house is mine, that barn is yours," 
the words this and that are joined to nouns like adjectives, 
to define or specify them ; they may, on this account, be 
called adjectives. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 71 

Q. — What then are adjective pronouns? 

A. — Adjective Pronouns are words that resemble 
both pronouns and adjectives. These pronouns are some- 
times called pronominal adjectives, or specifying adjectives. 

Q. — How divided? 

A. — The Adjective Pronouns may be divided into three 
sorts — the distributive, the demonstrative, and the in- 
definite. 

Q. — What are distributive adjective pronouns? 

A. — 1. The Distributives are those that relate to per- 
sons or things, taken separately and singly. 

Q. — Which are they? 

A. — They are each, evert, either, and sometimes 

NEITHER. 

Q. — What does each relate to : 

A. — Each relates to two or more persons or things, taken 
separately; as, "each of his brothers is doing well." 

Q. — What does every relate to? 

A. — Evert relates to several persons or things, and sig- 
nifies each one of them, taken separately; as, "Every man 
must account for himself." 

Q. — What does either relate to? 

JL— Either relates to two persons or things only, taken 
separately, and signifies the one or the other; as, "I have 
not seen either." Hence, to say, "either of the three," 
is incorrect. 

Q. — What does neither mean? 

A. — Neither means not either ; that is, not one nor the 
other ; as, "Neither of my friends was there." 

Q. — What are demonstrative adjective pronouns? 

A. — 2. The Demonstratives are those which precisely 
point out the things to which they relate. 



72 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

Q. — Which are they : 

A. — They are this, that, yon, former, latter, and are of 
both numbers, thus: 



This, These, Former, Former, 

That, Those, Latter, Latter. 

Yon, Yon. 

Q.— What do 27m and TJiese; That and Those, and That 
and This refer to? 

A. — Tliis and TJiese refer to the nearest persons or things ; 
TJiat and Those to the most distant; as, "These gloves are 
superior to those." That refers to the former, or Jirst 
mentioned, this to the latter, or last mentioned; as, "Both 
wealth, and poverty, are temptations;" that (wealth) tends 
to excite pride, this (poverty) discontent. 

Q. — What are indefinite adjective pronouns? 

A. — 3. The Indefinites are those that refer to things in 
an indefinite or general manner. 

A. — Which are they? 

A. — They are : Some, other, any, one, all, such, none. 

Q. — Are any of those declined like nouns? 

A. — Of these pronouns, one and other are declined like 
nouns. Another is declined in the singular, but it wants 
the plural. 

One and other are declined, as follows : 





SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Nom. 


One, 


Ones, 


Other, 


Others, 


Pos. 


One's, 


Ones', 


Other's, 


Others', 


Obj. 


One, 


Ones, 


Other, 


Others. 



Q. — What does another mean ? 

A. — Another is merely the article an and other, and is 
used only in the singular number. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 73 

Q. — How is none used? 

A. — None is used in both numbers, but it cannot be 
joined to a noun. 

Q. — How are one, other, and another, sometimes used? 

A. — One, other, and another, are sometimes used as 
nouns ; as, "The old bird feeds her young ones." 

Q. — What other words may be reckoned as indefinite ad- 
jective pronouns? 

A. — Among the indefinites may also be reckoned such 
words as no, few, many, several, &c. 

Q. — How are the three notes appertaining to adjective 
pronouns explained? 

A. — We say, "This book," "These books;" also, "one 
man," "twenty men," hence, 

Note 1. — Adjective pronouns and numerals must agree 
in number with the nouns to which they belong. 

We cannot say, "Them run ;" but, "They run," hence, 

2. — When a noun or a pronoun is the subject of a verb, 
it should be in the nominative case. 

It is very common for persons in conversation to say, 
"Them books." "Them knives," &c, instead of "Those 
books," "Those knives," &c. The incorrectness here al- 
luded to consists in substituting a personal in the place of 
an adjective pronoun ; hence, 

3. — The pronoun them should not be used in the place of 
these or those. 

PARSING EXERCISES. 

Parse "These two books." 

Model. — These is an adjective pronoun of the demon- 
strative kind, in the plural number and belongs to the 
noun books, according to Note 1. (Repeat the note. ) 

Tivo is a numeral adjective, of the cardinal kind, and 
belongs to books, according to Note 1. 

Books, (is parsed according to the model). 



74 Carroll's elementaky grammar. 

Parse the nouns, articles, adjectives, and adjective pro- 
nouns in the following sentences : 

"A good boy influences many others." "Some persons 
acquire wealth." "Either party can repair the injury." 
"Each man arrived at his station." "Every man must ac- 
count for himself." "Those sinful men make many pre- 
tences to religion." "These good men might remain with 
us." 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Q. — What is a relative pronoun ? 

A. — A Relative Pronoun is a word that relates to, 
and stands for some noun before it in the same sentence ; 
as, "That man is happy who lives virtuously;" the word 
who is a pronoun, because it stands for a noun (the noun 
man) and it is a relative, because it relates or refers to this 
noun in the same sentence. 

Q. — How many relative pronouns are there? 

A. — There are three relative pronouns, namely: who, 
which and that. 

Q. — When is who used? 

A. — Who is used in speaking of persons ; as, "The man 
icho came." 

Q. — When is which used? 

A. — Which is used in speaking of animals or things ; as, 
"The bird ichich sings." "The tree which I planted." 

Q. — When is which used in speaking of persons? 

A. — Which, however, is used in speaking of persons, 
when we wish to distinguish one of two individuals, or a 
particular person among many others; as, "Which of the 
two is he?" "Which of them has gone?" 

Q. — How is that used? 

A. — That, as a relative, is often used in speaking either 
of persons or things in the place of who or which; as, "The 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 75 

boy that reads," or "the boy who reads." "The bird that 
flew," or "The bird which flew." "The bench that was 
made," or "The bench which was made." 

Q. — "When is the relative that used in preference to who, 
or ivhich ? 

A. — That is used in preference to who or which, in the 
following cases : 

1. — In speaking both of persons and things; as, "The 
man and the beast that I saw, perished." 
. 2. — In speaking of children ; as, "The child that I met." 

3. — After the adjective, same; as, "He is the same man 
that we saw yesterday." 

4. — After the superlative degree; as, "He is the wisest 
man that the world ever produced." 

5. — After the relative who; as, "Who that reflects." 

Q. — How many numbers has who, and how is it declined? 

A. — We can say, "The man who," or "The men who," 
using the relative toho in speaking either of one man or 
more than one ; who, then, is of both numbers, and is thus 
declined : 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Norn. Who, Who, 

Poss. Whose, Whose, 

Obj. Whom, Whom. 

Q. — How many numbers have which and that, and are 
they declined? 

A. — Wliich and that are of both numbers, but they are 
not declined, except that whose is sometimes used as the 
possessive case of which; as, "Is there no other doctrine 
whose followers are punished?" 

Q. — How many words does whose represent when used 
as the possessive of which? 

A. — Wlwse, used in the manner last described, is made to 
represent three words; as "Philosophy whoes end," for 
'•'■the end of ivhich." 



to CARROLL S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Q. — What does the word antecedent mean, and what is 
the antecedent of a relative pronoun ? 

A. — Antecedent signifies going before. 

The noun or pronoun which goes before the relative, and 
to which the relative refers, is therefore called the antece- 
dent of the relative; as, "John, who has gone." Here, 
John is the antecedent of who. 

Q. — Are who, which and that always relatives? 

A. — When you are told that who, which and that are rel- 
atives, you should not get the impression that the last two 
are always relatives, for that is a relative only (except in 
those cases in which it is used in preference to ivho or 
which) ; when it is used in the sense of tvho or which, that 
is, whenwfto or tohich may be used in its place, without de- 
stroying the sense; as, "Here is the knife that I found," 
which can be altered to "Here is the knife which I found," 
without injury to the sense. 

Q. — How many different parts of speech may that repre- 
sent? 

A. — That, when it points out or specifies some particular 
person or thing is reckoned an adjective pronoun. When 
not used as a relative, nor as an adjective pronoun, it is 
reckoned a conjunction; as, "He studies that he ma}' 
learn." 

Hence it appears that the word that may be used some- 
times as a relative pronoun, sometimes as an adjective pro- 
noun, and sometimes as a conjunction. 

Q. — What is the rule for the government of relative pro- 
nouns? 

A. — Since relative pronouns stand for nouns, as well as 
personal pronouns, they should therefore agree with nouns 
in the* same particulars and by the same rule. Rule V, 
will therefore apply to both. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 77 

COMPOUND AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Q. — What does the word zohat mean in the following 
sentences? 

"I took what you gave me." "I took that which you 
gave me." "I took the thing which you gave me." "I 
took those things which you gave me." 

A. — By examining the foregoing sentences, you will see 
that the word what, in the first example, means the same as 
the words in italics in the successive ones ; the word what, 
then, is clearly a pronoun, and because it stands for more 
than one word, it is called a compound pronoun. The 
word before the relative which, in the phrase, "that which," 
or "the thing which," is the antecedent of ivhich. 

Q. — What then is a correct definition of ivhat? 

A. — What is a compound pronoun, always including the 
demonstrative that, which points out the antecedent noun, 
and the relative which, that repeats that antecedent in the 
subsequent member of the sentence. 

Q. — When is the word ivhat used as a relative pronoun? 

A. — The relative ivhat is never used except when the an- 
tecedent is omitted ; which is used when the antecedent is 
expressed. Therefore, if we omit the antecedent we must 
use ivhat instead of ivhich, and if the antecedent is re- 
stored to its place, which must follow, and not what. Thus, 
"I saw what I wanted to see." Here the antecedent to 
what is thing understood ; if we express the antecedent 
thing, which will take the place of what; as, "I saw the 
thing ivhich I wanted to see." 

Q. — In which of the personal pronouns in the possessive 
case is the usage similar to that of what? 

A. — There is a similar usage in some of the personal 
pronouns in the possessive case; as, "This is my book." 
If we leave out the noun booh, the pronoun my must be 



78 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

changed to mine; as, "This is mine." The pronouns which 
follow this rule are those which have two forms in the pos- 
sessive case ; namely, mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs. 
They are always used when the noun expressing the thing 
possessed is omitted, just as what is used instead of ichich 
when the antecedent is omitted. The word left out in these 
cases is usually something so easily supplied that it seems 
to exist in the pronoun itself, whereas it really exists only 
in our own thoughts. What does not of itself mean '■'•the 
thing which," any more than mine, of itself, means "my 
book." 

Q. — Isivhat ever used as an interjection? 

A. — In some instances we find what used in the sense of 
an interjection; as, "What! take my money, and then my 
life?" 

Remark. — For a full explanation and demonstration of 
the relative WJiat, see Carroll's Large Grammar, page 
76, &c. 

The only exception to the rule for finding the nominative 
case to a verb is, when a relative pronoun is nominative to 
a verb. The case of the relative pronoun is determined by 
Rule XXIV, which may be called a local rule, or a rule of 
place, and which is as follows, namel}': 

RULE XXIV. 

Part 1. — The relative is the nominative case to the verb, 
when no nominative case comes between it and the verb ; 
as, "The master tcho taught us;" "The trees which were 
planted." 

Part 2. — But when a nominative comes between the rel- 
ative and the verb, the relative is governed by some word 
in its own member of the sentence; as, "He who preserves 
me, to whom I owe my being, ivhose I am, and whom I 
serve, is eternal." 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 79 

In the several members of the last sentence the relative 
performs a different office. In the first member it marks 
the agent ; in the second it submits to the government of 
the preposition ; in the third, it represents the possessor ; 
and in the fourth, the object of an action ; and therefore it 
must be in the three different cases, corresponding to those 
offices. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Parse — "That man is happy who lives virtuously." 

Model. — That is an adjective pronoun, of the demonstra- 
tive kind ; in the singular number — and belongs to man, ac- 
cording to Note 1. (Repeat the note.) 

Man is a noun, because it is a name; common — it is a 
general name ; masculine gender — it is the name of a male ; 
svngular number — it means but one ; third person — it is 
spoken of, and it is in the nominative case, because it is the 
subject of a verb, and will answer to the question who, put 
before the verb, and it is nominative case to the verb is, ac- 
cording to Rule VI. (Repeat the rule.) 

Is is a verb, because it signifies to be or to exist ; made in 
the singular number, and third person — because its nomina- 
tive man is of that number and person with which it agrees 
according to Rule VII. (Repeat the rule.) 

Happy is an adjective ; a word joined or added to a noun 
to describe or qualify it. Positive, happy ; comparative, 
happier; superlative, happiest; made in the positive degree, 
because it merely describes without any comparison, and 
belongs to the noun man, according to Rule IV. (Repeat 
the rule. ) 

Who is a relative pronoun, because it relates to the noun 
man, its antecedent for which it stands, and with which it 
agrees in gender, number and person, according to Rule V. 
(Repeat the rule.) 



80 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

It is, therefore, masculine gender, singular number, and 
third person, and is the nominative case to the verb lives, 
according to the first part of 

Rule XXIV. — The relative is the nominative case to the 
verb, when no nominative case comes between it and the 
verb. 

Lives is a verb, because it expresses being or existence ; 
made in the singular number, and third person, because its 
nominative w?io, is of that number and person, with which 
it agrees according to Rule VII. (Repeat the rule.) 

Virtuously is an adverb, because it qualifies the verb 
lives, and belongs to the verb lives, according to Rule IX. 

Adverbs belong to the verbs, participles, adjectives or 
other adverbs, which they qualify. 

"The man found what he wanted," equal to "The map 
found that thing, or those things which he wanted." 

WJiat is a compound pronoun, including the demonstra- 
tive, that, which points out the antecedent noun, and the 
relative which that repeats that antecedent in the subse- 
quent member of the sentence. TJiat, the demonstrative 
part of ivhat, belongs to the noun thing, according to 
Note 1. 

WJiich, the relative part of what, relates to the noun 
thing, as its antecedent, with which it agrees, according to 
Rule V. 

It is, therefore, neuter gender, singular number, and 
third person, and it is in the objective case ; the object of 
the active transitive verb wanted, and governed by it ac- 
cording to the second part of Rule XXIV. When a nom- 
inative case comes between the relative and the verb, the 
relative is governed by some word in its own member of 
the sentence. It is also governed b} r the active transitive 
verb wanted, according to Rule VIII. But when a relative 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 81 

pronoun becomes the object of an active transitive verb, 
we only quote the second part of Rule XXIV for its gov- 
ernment. 

Parse the following sentences: 

"That man is fortunate who escapes censure." "The 
girl whom I saw perished." "You taught the boy whose 
hat I found." "That house which stands on the hill, be- 
longs to me." "I will leave what is useless." "James 
will do what is proper." 

VERBS. 

Q. — What is a verb? 

A. — A Verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or, 
to suffer; as, lam; 1 rule; I am ruled; or, 

A verb is a word that expresses action or being; or, 

A verb is a word which expresses affirmation. 

These definitions, and others of the verb, have all the same 
signification, and all the same defect; yet they answer all 
practical purposes. 

Q. — How many kinds of verbs are there? 

A. — Verbs are of three kinds ; active, passive, andneuter. 
they are also divided into regular, irregular, and defective. 

What is an active verb, and how many kinds of active 
verbs are there? 

A. — 1. An Active Verb expresses action, and the 
nominative case is the actor, or subject of the verb ; as, 
'■'■John writes.' ' Active verbs are either transitive or intran- 
sitive. 

Q. — When is an active verb transitive? 

A. — An active verb is transitive when it either has or may 
have an object after it ; as, "John beats William." 

Q. — When is an active verb intransitive? 

A. — An active verb is intransitive when it neither has 
nor can have an object after it ; as "John walks." 



82 CARROLL S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Q. — How can you tell when an active verb is transitive or 
intransitive ? 

A. — When we can place him or it after any active verb, 
and make sense, it is transitive ; otherwise, it is intransitive. 
Thus love, help, conquer, reach, subdue, overcome, will all 
make sense by placing him, or it, after them ; as I love him, 
or it, &c. 

But an active intransitive verb will not make sense in this 
way, which fact will be shown by the following examples : 
Smile, go, come, play, bark, walk, fly. We cannot say, if 
we mean to convey sense, I smile him or it, &c. , hence you 
perceive that these verbs are not transitive, but in- 
transitive. 

Q. — What different kinds of actions do active verbs 
express ? 

A. — If you reflect upon these examples for a few moments 
you will have a clear conception of the nature of transitive 
and intransitive verbs. It is necessary further to remark, 
that some transitive and intransitive verbs express what is 
called a mental or moral action ; and others, a corporeal or 
physical action. Verbs expressing the different affections 
or operations of the mind, denote moral actions ; as, Wash- 
ington loved his country ; James hates vice ; we believe the 
tale; to repent, to relent, to think, to reflect, to mourn, to 
muse, &c. Those expressing the actions produced by mat- 
ter, denote physical actions ; as The dog hears the bell ; 
Columbus discovered America; to see, to feel, to taste, to 
smell, 'to run, to talk, to fly, to strike, to write, &c. 

Q. — How is the verb resembles, and some others treated ? 

A. — In the sentence, "Charles resembles his father," the 
verb resembles does not appear to express any action at all ; 
yet the construction of the sentence, and the office which 
the verb performs, are such that we are obliged to parse it 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 83 

as an active-transitive verb, governing the noun father, in 
the objective case. This you may easily reconcile in your 
mind, by reflecting that the verb has a direct reference to its 
object. The following verbs are of this character: Have, 
oivn, retain; as, I have a book. 

Q. — What does a passive verb denote? 

A. — 2. A Passive Verb denotes action received or 
endured by the person or thing, which is in the nominative ; 
as, "The boy is beaten by his father. 

Q. — How is this explained? 

A. — You perceive that the nominative boy, in this exam- 
ple, is not represented as the actor, but as the object of the 
action expressed by the verb is beaten; that is, the boy 
receives or endures the action performed by his father ; 
therefore boy is a passive nominative. And you observe, 
too, that the verb is beaten, denotes the action received or 
endured by the nominative ; therefore is beaten is a passive 
verb. 

Q. — How do you further explain active and passive nomi- 
natives ? 

A. — If I say, John kicked the horse, John is* an active 
nominative, because he performed or produced the action; 
but if I say, John was kicked by the horse, John is a passive 
nominative, because he received or endured the action. 
Hence, you see that when the verb is active, its nominative 
is likewise active ; and when the verb is passive, its nomi- 
native is likewise passive ; and that the object of the active 
verb becomes the nominative or subject of the passive verb. 

Q. — When is the passive voice a convenient mode of 
expression? 

A. — The passive voice is a convenient mode of expression 
on occasions when we wish to state what has been done, 
without exposing the author; thus instead of saying, "Wil- 



84 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

liam struck John," I can, to avoid alluding to William, say, 
"John was struck." 

Q. — How are all passive verbs formed? 

A. — All passive verbs are formed by adding the perfect 
participle of an active transitive verb, to the neuter verb 
to be. 

Q. — What does the neuter verb express? 

A. — 3. A Neuter Verb expresses neither action nor 
passion, but being, or a state of being; as, John sits. 

Q. — How is John represented in the foregoing example ; 
and what similarity exists between the neuter gender and 
the neuter verb? 

A. — In this example, John is not represented as an actor, 
but as the subject of the verb sits, therefore John is in the^, 
nominative case to the verb. And you know that the word 
sits does not express apparent action but a condition of 
being; that is, it represents John in a particular state of 
existence; therefore sits is a neuter verb. In speaking of 
the neater gender of nouns, I informed you that neater 
means neither; from which it follows that neuter gender im- 
plies neither gender ; that is, neither masculine nor femi- 
nine. Hence, by an easy transition of thought, you learn, 
that neuter, when applied to verbs, means neither of the 
other two classes ; that is, a neuter verb is one which is 
neither active nor passive. In these examples, The man 
stands ; The lady lives ; The child sleeps ; The world exists ; 
the words, stands, lives, sleeps, and exists, are neuter verbs ; 
and the nouns, man, lad)/, child, and world, are all in the 
nominative case, because each is the subject of a verb. 
Thus, you perceive, that when a noun is in the nominative 
case to an active verb, it is the actor ; when in the nomina- 
tive case to a passive verb, it is the receiver or sufferer of 
the action expressed by the verb ; and when it is nominative 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 85 

to a neuter verb, it is neither an actor nor receiver, but 
simply the subject of the verb. 

Q. — In what two ways do neuter verbs express being? 

A. — Some neuter verbs express being in general; as, 
The man is ; Kingdoms exist. Others express being in some 
particular state ; as, The man stands, sits, lies, or hangs. 

I will now illustrate the active, passive, and neuter nomi- 
natives, by a few examples. 

1. Active Nominatives; as, "The boy beats the 
dog;" "The lady sings;" "The ball rolls;" "The man 
walks." 

2. Passive Nominatives; as, "The boy is beaten ;" 
"The lady is loved ;" "The ball is rolled ;" "The man was 
killed." 

3. Neuter Nominatives; as, "The boy remains 
idle;" "The lady is beautiful;" "This ball lies on the 
ground ;" "The man lives in town." 

Q. — What belong to verbs? 

A. — To verbs belong number, person, mood, tense, and 
voice. 

NUMBER AND PERSON OP VERBS. 

You recollect that the nominative is the actor or subject, 
and the active verb expresses the action performed by the 
nominative. By this you perceive that a very intimate con- 
nection or relation exists between the nominative case and 
the verb. If, therefore, only one creature or thing acts, 
only one action, at the same instant, can be done ; as, The 
girl torites. The nominative girl is here of the singular 
number, because it means but one person ; and the verb 
writes denotes but one action, which the girl performs ; 
therefore the verb writes is of the singular number, agreeing 
with its nominative, girl. When the nominative case is 
plural, the verb must be plural; as, girls write. Take 



86 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

notice, the singular verb ends ins, but the noun is generally 
plural when it ends in s; thus, "The girl writes;" "The 
girls write." 

Q. — What is meant by the persons of verbs? 

A. — Person, strictly speaking, is a quality that belongs 
not to verbs, but to nouns and pronouns. We say, how- 
ever, that the verb must agree with its nominative in person, 
as well as in number ; that is, the verb must be spelled and 
spoken in such a manner as to correspond with the first, 
second or third person of the noun or pronoun which is its 
nominative. 

I will now show you how the verb is varied in order to 
agree with its nominative in number and person. I, thou, 
he, she, it; we, ye, or you, they, axe personal pronouns. I 
is of the first person, and singular number ; Thou is second 
person ; He, She, or It, is third person, singular; We, isjint 
person, plural; Ye, or you, is second person, plural; They, 
is third person, plural. These pronouns are the representa- 
tives of nouns,' and perform the same office that the nouns 
would for which they stand. When placed before the verb, 
they are, therefore, the nominatives to the verb. 

Notice, particularly, the different variations or endings of 
the verb, as it is thus conjugated in the 

INDICATIVE MOOD, PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st person. I walk. 1st person. We walk. 

2d person. Thou walkest. 2d person. Ye or you walk. 

3d person. He walks, or ^ 3d person. They walk, or -j 

the boy walks, >• the boys walk. >■ 

or walketh. J J 

This display of the verb shows you that whenever it ends 
in est, it is of the second person, singidar; but when the 
verb ends in s, or eth, it is of the third person, singular. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 87 

Walkest, ridest, standest, are of the second person, singu- 
lar ; and walks or walketh, rides or rideth, stands or standetli, 
are of the third person singular. 

I have told you that when the nominative is singular 
number, the verb must be ; when the nominative is plural, 
the verb must be ; and when the nominative is first, second, 
or third person, the verb must be of the same person. If 
you look again at the foregoing conjugation of walk, you 
will notice that the verb varies its endings in the singular, 
in order to agree in form with the first, second and third 
person of its nominative ; but in the plural it does not vary 
its endings from the first person, singular. The verb, how- 
ever, agrees in sense with its nominative in the plural, as 
well as in the singular. Exercise a little mind, and you will 
perceive that agreement and government in language do not 
consist merely in the form of words. Now, is it not clear, 
that when I say, I ivalk, the verb walk is singular, because 
it expresses but one action? And when I say, two men 
walk, is it not equally apparent that ivalk is plural, because 
it expresses two actions? In the sentence, Ten men walk, the 
verb walk denotes ten actions, for there are ten actors. 
Common sense teaches you that there must be as many ac- 
tions as there are actors; and that the verb, when it has no 
form or ending to show it, is as strictly plural as when it 
has. So, in the phrase, We walk, the verb walk is first 
person, because it expresses the actions performed by the 
speakers; Ye or you walk, the verb is second person ; de- 
noting the actions of the persons spoken to ; third per- 
son, they walk. The verb then, when correctly written, 
always agrees in sense with its nominative in number and 
rerson. This clearly illustrates the truth of the remarks 
or demonstrations under Rule VI, and Rule VII. 

For a full illustration of the verb, see Carroll's Large 
Grammar, page 84. 



88 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

MOOD OR MODE. 

Q.— What is Mood or Mode? 

A. — Mood or Mode is a particular form of the verb, 
showing the manner in which the being, action, or passion is 
represented. 

Q. — How many Moods have verbs? 

A. — There are five Moods of verbs, namely: The Indic- 
ative ; The Potential ; The Subjunctive ; The Impera- 
tive ; and The Infinitive, 

Q. — What is the indicative Mood used for? 

A. — The Indicative Mood is used simply for assert- 
ing, indicating, or declaring a thing, or asking a question ; 
as, "I walk;" "Do I walk?" 

Q. — How may the indicative Mood be known? 

A. — The Indicative Mood may be known bv the 
sense, or by its having no sign except in asking a question ; 
as, "Who comes here?" 

Q. — What is the potential Mood used for ? 

A. — The Potential Mood is used for expressing 
possibility, liberty, power, will, obligation, or necessity, either 
with or without asking a question ; as, "I may go ;" "May 
I go?" "He must read," &c. 

Q. — What has the potential Mood for its signs ? 

A. — The Potential Mood has for its signs the 
auxiliaries may, can, must, might, could, would, and should; 
as, "I could love," &c. 

Q. — Why are all these different forms of representing 
actions considered in the potential mood? 

A. — In order to prevent multiplying moods to a great and 
almost numberless extent. 

Q. — What is the subjunctive Mood used for? 

A. — The Subjunctive Mood is used for expressing 
doubt or uncertainty; as, "He will escape punishment, if he 
repent." 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 89 

Q. — What does the word subjunctive signify? 

A. — The term subjunctive signifies subjoined, or added to. 

When I say, "I will go, if he desire it," the phrase, "if 
he desire it," is added on to the one before it, hence we say, 
"if he desire it," is in the subjunctive mood. The term, 
however, is limited to such sentences as are preceded by the 
conjunctions if, unless, although, except, lest, &c, which 
imply doubt or some uncertainty. 

Q. — In how many forms may a verb in the subjunctive 
Mood be expressed? 

A. — A verb in the subjunctive mood may be expressed 
in two different forms. It is equally correct to say, "If he 
is poor, he is respected," and "If he be studious, he will 
excel." The verbs be and is are both in the present tense ; 
and since each has the conjunction if before it, each is in the 
subjunctive mood. 

Q. — What does the phrase, "If he be studious," mean? 

A. — The phrase, "If he be studious," means the same as 
"If he will be studious," it therefore plainly implies future 
time. 

Q. — What is meant by the phrase, "If he is poor?" 

A. — On the contrary, in the phrase, "If he is poor" the 
sense plainly is, "If he is now, at the present time, poor," 
without any reference to future time. 

Q.— -What appears from these two examples? 

A. — Hence it appears, that in one form of the verb, doubt 
only is implied ; and in the other, both doubt and future time. 

Remark. — The verb is corresponds with the common form 
of the verb to be, in the indicative mood, present tense, as "I 
am, you are, he is ;" we will therefore, when the verb is varied 
as usual, call it the common form of the subjunctive mood ; 
and when the verb is not varied in the different persons, we 
will call it the subjunctive form, since this form is peculiar to 



90 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

this mood. You should here be informed that this distinc- 
tion relates only to the present tense, it being customary to 
vary the terminations of the verb in the remaining tenses as 
usual. 

Q. — What general rules explain the proper use of the sub- 
junctive Mood? 

A. — The following general rules will direct you in the 
proper use of the subhmctive mood : 

1. When any verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, 
has a reference to future time, we should use the 

SUBJUNCTIVE FORM. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st person. If I love, 1st person. If we love, 

2d person. If thou or you love, 2d person. If ye or you love, 

3d person. If he love. 3d person. If they love. 

2. When a verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, 
has no reference to future time, we should use the 

COMMON FORM. 
Singular. Plural. 

1st person. If I love, 1st person. If we love, 

2d person. If thou lovest, or \ 2d person. If ye love, or 

If you love, / If you love, 

3d person. If he loves. 3d person. If they love. . 

Q. — Are any other conjunctions, besides if used before 
the subjunctive mood? 

A. — Yes, other conjunctions, besides if, are used before 
the subjunctive mood. If is perhaps used most frequently, 
because it implies doubt more strongly than most others. 

Q. — What can be seen by the foregoing? 

A. — By the foregoing, it will be seen that when the verb 
is in the subjunctive form, some auxiliary verb is always 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 91 

understood; as, "He will not be pardoned, unless he re- 
pent ;" that is, "unless he will repent ;" "If thou ever re- 
turn, thou shouldst be thankful ;" that is, "if thou should^t 
ever return." 

Q. — How is a verb in the indicative mood converted into 
the subjunctive? 

A. — A verb in the indicative mood is converted into the 
subjunctive, common form, simply by placing a conjunction, 
implying doubt,, before it; as, "I walk;" the indicative 
mood, becomes subjunctive by prefixing if; thus, "If I 
walk." 

Q. — How are verbs in the potential mood changed to the 
subjunctive. 

A. — In like manner, a verb in the potential may be 
changed to the subjunctive; as, "I can go," is the poten- 
tial ; "If I can go," the subjunctive. 

Q. — What are the usual signs of the subjunctive mood? 

A. — The subjunctive mood has usually for its signs the 
conjunctions if though, unless, except, whether, and lest; as, 
"unless he repent," &c. 

Q. — Is there any difference between the subjunctive 
mood, common form, and the indicative mood? 

A. — The subjunctive mood, common form, and the indic- 
ative mood, are exactly alike ; placing any conditional con- 
junction before the nominative of the verb in the indicative 
will convert the indicative into the subjunctive. 

Q. — What is the imperative mood used for? 

A.— The Imperative Mood is used for commanding, 
exhorting, entreating, or permitting ; as, "Study your les- 
son;" "Obey your parents;" "Save my child;" "Go in 
peace." 

When I say, "John, mind your book," I command John to 
do something ; and because imperative means commanding, 



92 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

we say, that mind, in the phrase above, is in the imperative 
mood. 

Q. — Does the imperative mood embrace many forms ? 

A. — This mood, like the potential, embraces several forms 
for expressing different actions, and for the like reason. 

Q. — To what person is this mood limited? 

A. — The application of this mood is limited to the second 
person; as, "John, come to me;" because in uttering a 
command, making an entreaty, &c, we must necessarily ad- 
dress some one ; hence you can see the reason why this 
mood has but one person, viz. : the second. 

Q. — Can a verb in this mood have any past time? 

A. — We cannot, with any propriety, command a person to- 
day, or in present time, to do any thing in past time ; yes- 
terday, for instance ; consequently a verb in this mood can- 
not have any past time. 

Q. — Can a verb in this mood have any future time? 

A. — When I command a person to do any thing, the per- 
formance of the command must take place in a period of 
time subsequent to that of the command, that is, in future 
time ; but the command itself must, from the very nature of 
the case, take place in present time ; this mood, therefore, 
cannot, strictly speaking, have any future tense. 

Q. — What then must be the tense, and person, of a verb 
in the imperative mood? 

A. — A verb in the imperative mood must be in the pres- 
ent tense, and in the second person. 

Q. — How may the imperative mood be distinguished? 

A. — The imperative mood may be distinguished by its 
always being in the second person, and by its agreement 
with thou, or ye or you, expressed or understood ; as, "De- 
part thou," &c. 

Q. — What does the infinitive mood express? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 93 

A. — The Infinitive Mood is used to express an ac- 
tion not limited either by number or person ; as, to play, to 
sing, to walk, to team, to love, &c. 

In the phrases, "John begins to sing," "The boys begin 
to sing," "Thou beginnest to sing," you perceive that the 
verb to sing is not varied to correspond with the number and 
person of its different agents, John, the boys, and thou; 
hence, to sing, is said not to be limited either by number or 
person. 

This mood, then, is properly denominated infinitive, sig- 
nifying not limited. 

To, the usual sign of this mood, is sometimes understood ; 
as, "Let me go," instead of, "Let me to go," "I heard him 
say it," for "I heard him to say it." This little word to, 
when used before verbs in this manner, is uot a preposition, 
but forms a part of the verb, and, in parsing, should be so 
considered. 

Eemark. — Fora demonstration of the moods, see Car- 
roll's Large Grammar, page 89. 

TENSE. 

Q. — What is tense, and how many variations does it admit 
of? 

A. — Tense is the distinction of time, and admits of six 
variations, namely ; The present, the imperfect, the perfect, the 
pluperfect, and the first and second future tenses. 

Q. — What does the present tense express? 

A. — The Present Tense expsesses what is now tak- 
ing place; as, "John swims." 

Q. — How else is it employed? 

A. — This tense is often employed to express the action of 
persons long since dead ; as, "Seneca reasons and moralizes 
well." 



94 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

Q. — What is the sign of the present tense? 

A. — The present tense has for its sign the first form of 
the verb ; as, weep, remain, &c, except the occasional use 
of do; as, "I do learn." 

Q. — What does the imperfect tense express? 

A. — The Imperfect Tense expresses what took 
place in past time, however distant; as, "John died." 

Q. — What is the sign of the imperfect tense? 

A. — The imperfect tense has no auxiliary for a sign, 
except did, which is sometimes used. If, however, the verb 
is not in the present tense, and has no auxiliary, it follows 
that i£ is in the imperfect ; as, "I fought." 

Q. — What does the perfect tense express? 

A. — The Perfect Tense expresses what has taken 
place in past time, and also conveys an allusion to the pres- 
ent time; as, "I have written." 

Q. — When should the imperfect tense, and also, the perfect 
tense be used? 

A. — When any particular period of past time is specified or 
alluded to, we use the imperfect tense; as, "John wrote 
yesterda} 7 ;" but when no particular past time is specified, 
we use the perfect tense; as, "I have read Virgil many 
times." 

Q. — What has the perfect tense for its sign? 

A. — The perfect tense has for its sign the word have; as, 
have loved. 

Q. — What does the pluperfect tense express? 

A. — The Pluperfect Tense expresses what had 
taken place at or before some past time mentioned; as, "I 
had finished my letter before my father returned." 

Q. — What has it for its sign ? 

A. — The pluperfect tense has for its sign the word had; 
as, had loved. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 95 

Q. — What does the first future tense express? 

A. — The First Future Tense expresses what will 
take place hereafter ; as, "John will come." 

Q. — What has it for its sign? 

A. — The first future tense has for its sign shall or will; 
as, shall or will love. 

Q. — What does the second future tense express? 

A. — The Second Future Tense expresses what 
will have taken place, at or before some future time men- 
tioned; as, "I shall have finished my business before the 
steamboat starts." 

Q. — What has it for its sign? 

A. — The second future tense has for its sign, shall have or 
will have; as shall have loved or toill have loved. 

Q. — How many tenses has each mood? 

A. — The indicative mood has six tenses. 

The Subjunctive mood has six tenses. 

The Potential mood has four tenses. 

The Imperative mood has one tense. 

The Infinitive mood has two tenses. 

Eemark. — For a clear demonstration of the tenses, see 
Carroll's large grammar, page 92. And for a full explana- 
tion of the present, imperfect and perfect tenses see page 90. 

Some authors have changed the names of some of the 
tenses as follows: 

The Present is called the Present. The Imperfect is called 
the Past. The Perfect is called the Present perfect. The 
Pluperfect is called the Past perfect. The First future is 
called the Future. The Second future is called the Future 
perfect. 

Good reason can be assigned, for changing the name of 
the imperfect tense to that of the past tense; the word imper- 
fect means unfinished or incomplete. In the sentence, 



96 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

"John was writing when I saw him," the verb, was writing, 
denotes an action unfinished in past time, and corres- 
ponds with what is usually denominated in Latin, the im- 
perfect tense; hence, the origin of the name selected by 
English grammarians to denote action past and finished, a 
term not at all significant of an action finished in past time. 
With this explanation we can understand why the time of 
an act performed in past time is called the imperfect tense, 
just as well as we can understand why the article the is 
called definite. And as I can see no reason for changing 
the names of the other tenses, I have retained the original 
tenses, out of respect for their venerable antiquity. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Q. — What is a participle ? 

A. — A Participle is a word derived from a verb, and 
partakes of the nature of a verb and adjective. 

In the phrase "I found a man laboring in the field," the 
word laboring shows what the man was doing, and therefore 
resembles a verb. When I say, "The laboring man should 
not be wronged," laboring is joined to the noun man, to 
describe it, and therefore resembles an adjective. The 
word laboring then, partakes of the nature of two parts of 
speech, and since participle signifies partaking of, all such 
words as laboring are called participles. 

Q. — What are all participles derived from? 

A. — All participles are derived from verbs ; thus, from 
labor, comes laboring; from beat, beating; from rejoice, 
rejoicing ; &c. 

Q. — How many participles have verbs ? 

A. — Verbs have three participles ; the present or active 
(sometimes called the imperfect); the perfect or passive, 
and the compound perfect. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 97 

Q. — What does the present participle express? 

A. — The present participle expresses what is now taking 
place, but not finished ; as, " John is writing;'* the partici- 
ple writing shows what John is now doing, but has not 
finished; writing, then, may be called a present participle, 
and because it denotes action, it may be called active; and 
because it expresses unfinished action, it may properly be 
called imperfect. 

Q. — In what does the present participle always end? 

A. — This participle always ends in ing; as sinning , fight- 
ing, weeping, loving, &c, and is usually formed by adding 
ing to the present tense of the verb. 

Q. — Are all words ending in ing participles? 

A. — There are, however, many words with this termina- 
tion, which are not participles ; as morning, evening, hire- 
ling, sapling, which are nouns ; uninteresting , unsatisfying, 
unbelieving, uncontrolling , which are adjectives. The fact 
that these cannot be formed from verbs will furnish you with 
a certain rule for distinguishing the participle from all other 
words of the same termination ; as for instance, there is 
such a verb as interest, hence you know that the word inter- 
esting is a participle, but there is no such verb as uninterest, 
consequently uninteresting can not be a participle, but it is 
an adjective ; as, an uninteresting story. You will be able 
very easily to distinguish the participle from the other parts 
of speech, when you shall have acquired a more extensive 
knowledge of the verb. 

Q. — What does the perfect or passive participle denote? 

A. — The perfect or passive participle denotes action or 
being perfected or finished. When derived from a regular 
verb it ends in ed, and corresponds with the imperfect tense ; 
as, ruled, smiled. "The letter is written." Here the par- 
ticiple written shows that the act of writing is past and 



98 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

finished. This participle may always be distinguished by 
its making sense with having ; thus, having written, having 
sung, &c. Here written and sung are perfect participles. 
It is called perfect when associated with have and passive 
when it is associated with be. 

Q. — What does the compound perfect participle express? 

A. — The compound perfect participle expresses what took 
place before something else mentioned; as, "John having 
written his letter, sealed it." Here you doubtless perceive 
that the act of writing took place before that of sealing ; 
also, that the participle is composed of two words, having 
and written; it may then be called' a compound participle, 
and because it denotes also an action past and finished, it 
may very properly be called a compound perfect participle. 

Q. — How is this participle formed? 

A. — This participle is formed by placing the present par- 
ticiple having before the perfect participle of any verb ; as, 
having fought, having ciphered, &c. 

Q. — How are participles otherwise used ? 

A. — Participles are sometimes used as nouns; as, "Play- 
ing is pleasant;" "He spends too much time in playing." 
Participles, when used as nouns, may be called participial 
nouns. These participial nouns, in their use, resemble the 
infinitive more than they do the participle in its adjective 
sense. "Playing is pleasant," and u to play is pleasant," 
signify the same thing. 

Q. — Why should the participle be classed as a separate 
and distinct part of speech? 

A. — By many writers the participle is classed with the 
verb and treated as a part of it, but as it has no nominative, 
partakes of the nature of an adjective, requires many syn- 
tactical rules which apply not to the verb, and, in some other 
respects, has properties peculiar to itself ; it is* believed that 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 99 

its character is sufficiently distinct from the verb to entitle 
it to the rank of a separate part of speech ; it is, in fact, the 
connecting link between, not only the adjective and the verb, 
but also the noun and the verb. 

Q. — Is there any difference in the form of the perfect and 
passive participles? 

A. — The perfect and passive participles are always the 
same in form. They take those different names from the 
manner in which they are used. 

Q. — When are they called perfect, and why? 

A.— They are called perfect when associated with, or 
joined to the verb have or any variation of it, because it is 
this combination that forms the perfect, pluperfect, and sec- 
ond future tenses. 

Q. — When are they called passive, and why? 

A. — They are called passive when associated with, or 
joined to the verb to be or any variation of it, because it is 
this combination that forms the passive voice in all of its 
forms. 

Q. — How do you know that struck is a perfect participle? 

A. — Struck is a perfect participle from the verb strike, and 
this you know, because it makes sense with having; as, hav- 
ing struck. 

Q. — By joining is with struck, what is formed? 

A. — Is, you doubtless recollect, is a variation of the verb 
to be; as, "I am, you are, he is;" now by joining is with 
struck, we can form the passive verb, is struck. "John 
strikes Joseph," is active; but, "Joseph is struck by 
John," is passive. 

Q. — Is there any difference in the meaning of these two 
expressions? 

A. — In these two examples you perceive that the sense 
of each is the same, hence, by means of the passive verb, 



100 caeroll's elementary grammar. 

we are enabled to express in a different form, the precise 
meaning of the active, which you will oftentimes find, con- 
tributes not a little to the variety and harmony of the lan- 
guage. 

Q. — How many variations has the verb to be, and what 
are they? 

A. — By examining the conjugation of the verb to be, you 
will discover that it has, in all, ten variations, namely: am, 
art, is, are, was, wast, were, been, be and being; every pas- 
sive verb must be composed of one of these ten variations, 
and the perfect participle of any active transitive verb. 
Thus, taking teas, and joining it with the perfect participle 
of the verb beat, namely, beaten, we form the passive verb 
ivas beaten, to which prefixing an object, or nominative case, 
we have the phrase, "William was beaten." 

Q. — What fact should be remembered? 

A. — It is a fact worthy to be remembered, that the pas- 
sive verb always retains the same mood, tense, number and 
person, that the verb to be has, before it is incorporated with 
the participle ; thus, "He has been," is in the indicative 
mood, perfect tense, singular number, and third person ; 
and, "He has been rejected," is likewise the indicative 
mood, perfect tense, singular number, and third person, in 
the passive voice. You will, therefore, have no difficulty 
in telling the mood, tense, number, and person of any pas- 
sive verb when you become familiar with the conjugation of 
the verb to be. 

Q. — Has the passive voice the participle in ingl 

A. — The passive voice has not the participle in ing. "I 
am following," is not passive ; but, "I am followed," is. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 101 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Q. — What are auxiliary verbs ? 

A. — Auxiliary Verbs are those, by the help of which, 
the principal verbs are conjugated. 

Q. — Which are the auxiliary verbs? 

A. — The auxiliary verbs are, may, can, must, might, could, 
tooidd, should, and shall. The following are sometimes aux- 
iliaries, and sometimes principal verbs: do, be, have and 
will. They are principal verbs when used alone, and aux- 
iliaries when associated with other verbs. 

Q. — When an auxiliary verb is used in the formation of 
any tense, what is that tense called? 

A. — When, in the formation of any tense, we use an aux- 
iliary verb, that tense is called a compound tense, and the 
tense formed by the principal verb alone, is called a simple 
tense. 

Now I hope you will so far consult your own ease and ad- 
vantage as to commit, perfectly, the signs of the moods and 
tenses before you proceed farther than the subjunctive 
mood. If you do, the supposed herculean task of learning 
to conjugate verbs, will be transformed into a few hours of 
pleasant pastime. 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

Q. — What is meant by voice in grammar? 

A. — When I ask you to raise your voice in reading, ycu 
readily understand what I mean by voice; but in grammar 
its application is somewhat peculiar. Grammatically con- 
sidered, it refers to the active and passive nature of verbs. 

Q. — What is the conjugation of a verb? 

A. — The Conjugation of a verb is the regular combina- 
tion and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, 
moods, and tenses. 



102 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

Q. — What is the conjugation of active and passive verbs 
styled ? 

A. — The Conjugation of an active verb is styled the ac- 
tive voice, and that of a passive verb the passive voice. 
Q. — When are verbs called regular, and irregular? 
A. — Verbs are called regular when they form their im- 
perfect tense of the indicative mood, and their perfect par- 
ticiple, by the addition of ed to the verb in the present tense, 
or d only when the verb ends in e; as, 

Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle. 

I favor, I favored, Favored. 

I love, I loved, Loved. 

When a verb does not form its imperfect tense and per- 
fect participle in this manner, it is called an irregular verb ; 
as, 

Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle. 

I am, I was, Been. 

I write, I wrote, Written. 

The regular verb loce, and the irregular verb to be, are 
conjugated as follows: 

CONJUGATION. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
ACTIVE VOICE. NEUTER. 

Singular. Singular. 

1st Per. I love. 1st Per. I am. 

2nd Per. You love. 2nd Per. You are. 

3rd Per. He loves. 3rd Per. He is. 

Plural. Plural. 

1st Per. We love. 1st Per. We are. 

2nd Per. You love. 2nd Per. You are. 

3rd Per. They love. 3rd Per. They are. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 



103 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 



ACTIVE VOICE. 

Singular. 
1st Per. I loved. 
2nd Per. You loved. 
3rd Per. He loved. 

Plural. 
1st Per. We loved. 
2nd Per. You loved. 
3rd Per. They loved. 



NEUTER. 

Singular. 
1st Per. I was. 
2nd Per. You were. 
3rd Per. He was. 

Plural. 
1st Per. We were. 
2nd Per. You were. 
3rd Per. They were. 



PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Per. I have loved. 
2nd Per. You have loved. 
3rd Per. He has loved. 

Plural. 
1st. Per. We have loved. 
2nd Per. You have loved. 
3rd Per. They have loved. 



Singular. 
1st Per. I have been. 
2nd Per. You have been. 
3rd Per. He has been. 

Plural. 
1st Per. We have been. 
2nd Per. You have been. 
3rd Per. They have been. 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Per. I had loved. 
2nd Per. You had loved. 
3rd Per. He had loved. 

Plural. 
1st Per. We had loved. 
2nd Per. You had loved. 
3rd Per. They had loved. 



Singular. 
1st Per. I had been. 
2nd Per. You had been. 
3rd Per. He had been. 

Plural. 
1st Per. We had been. 
2nd Per. You had been. 
3rd Per. They had been. 



FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Per. I shall or will love. 
2nd Per. You shall or will love. 
3rd. Per. He shall or will love. 

Plural. 
1st Per. We shall or will love. 
2nd Per. You shall or will love. 
3rd Per. They shall or will love. 



Singular. 
1st Per. I shall or will be. 
2nd Per. You shall or will be. 
3rd Per. He shall or will be. 

Plural. 
1st Per. We shall or will be. 
2nd Per. You shall or will be. 
3rd Per. They shall or will be. 



104 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

second future tense. 
active voice. neuter. 

Singular. Singular. 

1st Per. I shall have loved. 1st Per. I shall have been. 

2nd Per. You shall have loved. 2nd Per. You shall have been. 
3rd Per. He shall have loved. 3rd Per. He shall have been. 

Plural. Plural. 

1st Per. We shall have loved. 1st Per. We shall have been. 

2nd Per. You will have loved. 2nd Per. You will have been. 

3rd Per. They will have loved. 3rd Per. They will have been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Singular. 

1st Per. I may or can love. 1st Per. I may or can be. 

2nd Prr. Y ou may or can love. 2nd Per. You may or can be. 

3rd Per. He may or can love. 3rd Per. He may or can be. 

Plural. Plural. 

1st Per. We may or can love. 1st Per. We may or can be. 

2nd Per. You may or can love. 2nd Per. You may or can be. 

3rd Per. They may or can love. 3rd Per. They may or can be. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Singular. 

1st Per. I might, could, would, 1st Per. I might, could, would, 

or should love. or should be. 

2nd Per. You might, could, 2nd Per. You might, could, 

would, or should love. would, or should be. 

3rd Per. He might, could, 3rd Per. He might, could, 

would, or should love. would, or should be. 

Plural. Plural. 

1st Per. We might, could, 1st Per. We might, could, 

would, or should love. would, or should be. 

2nd Per. You might, could, 2nd Per. You might, could, 

would, or should love. would, or should be. 

3rd Per. They might, could, 3rd Per. They might, could, 
would, or should love. would, or should be. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 105 

PERFECT TENSE. 
ACTIVE VOICE. NEUTER. 

Singular. Singular. 

1st Per. I may or can have loved. 1st Per. I may or can have been. 
2nd Per. You may or can have 2nd Per. You may or can have 

loved. been. 

3rd Per. He may or can have 3rd Per. He may or can have 

loved. been. 

Plural. Plural. 

1st Per. We may or can have 1st Per. We may or can have 

loved. been. 

2nd Per. You may or can have 2nd Per. You may or can have 

loved. been. 

3rd Per. They may or can have 3rd Per. They may or can have 

loved. been. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Singular. 

1st Per. I might, could, would 1st Per. I might, could, would 

or should have loved. or should have been. 

2nd Per. You might, could, 2nd Per. You might, could, 

would or should have would or should have 

loved. been. 

3rd Per. He might, could, 3rd Per. He might, could, 

would or should have would or should have 

loved. been. 

Plural. Plural. 

1st Per. We might, could, would 1st Per. We might, could, would 

or should have loved. or should have been. 

2nd Per. You might, could, 2nd Per. You might, could, 

would or should have would or should have 

loved. been. 

3rd Per. They might, could, 3rd Per. They might, could, 
would or should have would or should have 

loved. been. 



106 



CARROLL S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.— PRESENT TENSE. 



ACTIVE VOICE 

Singular. 
1st Per. If I love. 
2nd Per. If you love. 
3rd Per. If he loves. 
Plural. 
1st Per. If we love. 
2nd Per. If you love. 
3rd Per. If they love. 



COMMON FORM. 

NEUTER. 

Singular. 
1st Per. If I am. 
2nd Per. If you are. 
3rd Per. If he is. 

Plural. 
1st Per. If we are. 
2nd Per. If you are. 
3rd Per. If they are. 



Singular. 
1st Per. If I love. 
2nd Per. If you love. 
3rd Per. If he love. 
Plural. 
1st Per. If we love. 
2nd Per. If you love. 
3rd Per. If they love 



SUBJUNCTIVE FORM. 

Singular. 
1st Per. If I be. 
2nd Per. If you be. 
3rd Per. If he be. 

Plural. 
1st Per. If we be, 
2nd Per. If you be. 
3rd Per. If they be. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Per. If I loved. 
2nd Per. If you loved. 
3rd Per. If he loved. 

Plural. 
1st Per. If we loved. 
2nd Per. If you loved. 
3rd Per. If they loved. 



COMMON FORM. 

Singular. 
1st Per. If I was. 
2nd Per. If you were. 
3rd Per. If he was. 

Plural. 
1st Per. If we were. 
2nd Per. If you were. 
3rd Per. If they were. 



SUBJUNCTIVE FORM. 



Singular. 
1st Per. If I loved. 
2nd Per. If you loved. 
3rd Per. If he loved. 



Singular. 
1st Per. If I were. 
2nd Per. If you were. 
3rd Per. If he were. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 107 

ACTIVE VOICE. NEUTER. 

Plural. Plural. 

1st Per. If we loved. 1st Per. If we were. 

2nd Per. If you loved. 2nd Per. If you were. 

3rd Per. If they loved. 3rd Per. If they were. 

The remaining tenses are all of the Common Form. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Singular. 

1st Per. If I have loved. 1st Per. If I have been. 

2nd Per. If you have loved. 2nd Per. If you have been. 

3rd Per. If he has loved. 3rd Per. If he has been. 

Plural. Plural. 

1st Per. If we have loved. 1st Per. If we have been. 

2nd Per. If you have loved. 2nd Per. If you have been. 

3rd Per. If they have loved. 3rd Per. If they have been. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Singular. 

1st Per. If I had loved. 1st Per. If I had been. 

2nd Per. If you had loved. 2nd Per. If you had been. 

3rd Per. If he had loved. 3rd Per. If he had been. 

Plural. Plural. 

1st Per. If we had loved. 1st Per. If we bad been. 

2nd Per. If you had loved. 2nd Per. If you had been. 

3rd Per. If they had loved. 3rd Per. If they had been. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Singular. 

1st Per. If I shall or will love. 1st Per. If I shall or will be. 
2nd Per. If you shall or will love. 2nd Per. If you shall or will be. 
3rd Per. If he shall or will love. 3rd Per. If he shall or will be. 

Plural. Plural. 

1st Per. If we shall or will love. 1st Per. If we shall o?"will be. 
2nd Per. If you shall or will 2nd Per. If you shall or will 

love. be. 

3rd Per. If they shall or will 3rd Per. If they shall or will 

love. be. 



108 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 
ACTIVE VOICE. NEUTER. 

Singular. Singular. 

1st Per. If I shall or will have 1st Per. If I shall or will have 

loved. been. 

2nd Per. If you shall or will 2nd Per. If you shall or will 

have loved. have been. 

3rd Per. If he shall or will 3rd Per. If he shall or will have 

have loved. been. 

Plural. Plural. 

1st Per. If we shall or will have 1st Per. If we shall or will have 

loved. been. 

2nd Per. If you shall or will 2nd Per. If you shall or will 

have loved. have been. 

3rd Per. If they shall or will 3rd Per. If they shall or will 

have loved. have been. 

. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Singular. 

2nd Per. Love you or do you 2nd Per. Be you or do you be. 
love. 

Plural. Plural. 

2nd Per. Love you or do you 2nd Per. Be you or do you be. 
love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. To love. Pres. To be. 

Perf . To have loved. Perf. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Loving. Pres. Being. 

Perf. Loved. Perf. Been. 

Comp. Perf. Having loved. Comp. Perf. Having been. 

For the benefit of those who wish to retain the pronoun 
thou, in the conjugation of verbs, the following synopsis is 
given. The learner can take it separately, or be taught it 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 109 

in connection with the other persons of the verb, by substi- 
tuting thou for you, (of the singular number), in the fore- 
going conjugation. 

SYNOPSIS WITH THOU. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
ACTIVE VOICE. NEUTER. 

Pres. Thou lovest. Thou art. 

Imp. Thou lovedst. Thou wast. 

Perf. Thou hast loved. Thou hast been. 

Plup. Thou hadst loved. Thou hadst been. 

1st Fut. Thou shalt or wilt love. Thou shalt or wilt be. 
2nd Fut. Thou wilt have loved. Thou wilt have been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Pres. Thou mayest or canst love. Thou mayest or canst be. 

Imp. Thou mightst, eouldst, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 

wouldst or shouldst love, or shouldst be. 
Perf. Thou mayest or canst have Thou mayest or canst have been. 

loved. 
Plup. Thou mightst, couldst, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst or shouldst have been. 

have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

COMMON FORM. 

Pres. If thou lovest. If thou art. 

Imp. If thou lovedst. If thou wast. 

SUBJUNCTIVE FORM. 

Pres. If thou love. If thou be. 

Imp. If thou loved. If thou wert. 

COMMON FORM. 

Perf. If thou hast loved. If thou hast been. 
Plup. If thou hadst loved. If thou hadst been. 
1st Fut. If thou shalt or wilt If thou shalt or wilt be. 

love. 
2nd Fut. If thou shalt have If thou shalt have been. 

loved. 



110 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

INTERROGATIVE FORM. 

INDICATIVE PRESENT. 





ACTIVE VOICE. 




NEUTER. 




Singular. 




Singular. 


1st. 
2nd. 
3rd. 


Do I love? 
Do you love? 
Does he love? 


1st. 
2nd. 
3rd. 


Ami? 
Are you? 
Is he? 




Plural. 




Plural. 


1st. 
2nd. 
3rd. 


Do we love? 
Do you love? 
Do they love? 


1st. 
2nd. 
3rd. 


Are we? 
Are you? 
Are they? 



You will find on examination of the foregoing conjugation 
that the tenses of the subjunctive are in every respect simi- 
lar to the corresponding ones of the indicative, except the , 
following, namely, the present and imperfect of the verb to 
be; the present and the second future active. The last, 
however, corresponds in termination, but not in formation. 
Among the exceptions should be reckoned the use of the 
conjunction if. There are instances, however, of the 
subjunctive form, when no conjunction is expressed, but 
in all such cases it is plainly understood; as, "Were I 
to go, he would not follow ;" ''Had he known me, he would 
have treated me differently;" that is, "If I were to go," 
and, "If he had known." Examples of this description are 
conjugated as follows : 

SUBJUNCTIVE FORM. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st. Were I, 1st. Were we, 

2nd. Were you, 2nd. Were you. 

3rd. Were he. 3rd. Were they. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st. Had I loved, 1st. Had we loved, 

2nd. Had you loved, 2nd. Had you loved, 

3rd. Had he loved. 3rd. Had they loved. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. Ill 

The second person singular of all verbs, (except art,) 
formerly ended in. st, as, "Thou hast," "Thou wast," &c. 
This form is still retained by that respectable class of per- 
sons called Friends, and in the sacred scriptures. 

Eth, for the termination of the third person singular, 
prevailed very generally till within a recent period, espe- 
cially on grave and didactic subjects; as, "He that 
hath ears to hear let him hear;" "Simple multiplica- 
tion teacheth to repeat," &c. , but the custom of the present 
day is decidedly against this form of expression. 

The scriptures abound with instances of the use of the 
pronoun ye for you; as, "Ye are the salt of the earth ;" but 
it is scarcely to be met with in any standard work of modern 
date. 

The following conjugation accords with the ancient usage 
of the verb. 

INDICATIVE PRESENT. 
ACTIVE VOICE. NEUTER. 

Singular. Singular. 

1st. I love, 1st. I am, 

2nd. Thou lovest, 2nd. Thou art, 

3rd. He loveth, or loves. 3rd. He is. 

Plural. Plural. 

1st. We love, 1st. We are, 

2nd. Ye or you love, 2nd. Ye or you are, 

3rd. They love. 3rd. They are. 

Remark. — For further information see Carroll's Large 
Grammar, page 108. 

N. B. — If you have not already learned the lists of ad- 
verbs, prepositions and conjunctions do it now. You will find 
them useful in going through the following exercises. 



112 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Parse. John found his hat in the road. 

Model. John is a noun — because it is a name ; a proper 
noun — because it is the name of a particular person ; mascu- 
line gender — because it is the name of a male ; third person 
— because it is spoken of ; singular number — it means bat 
one; and is in the nominative case — because it is the sub- 
ject of a verb ; and is the nominative of the verb found ;*- 
according to 

Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb in num- 
ber and person. It will also answer to the question who, 
put before the verb, as, who found? Ans. John. 

Found, is an irregular active transitive verb ; it is irreg- 
ular because it does not form its imperfect tense and perfect 
participle by the addition of d or ed to the present tense of 
the indicative mood ; as, pres. find ; imp. found ; perf . part. 
found; it is active transitive, because it expresses action, 
and admits an object after it ; made in the indicative mood, 
because it simply indicates or declares a thing ; imperfect 
tense, because it expresses what took place in past time ; 
singular number and third person, because its nominative 
John is, with which it agrees, according to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 

His, is a pronoun ; a word used instead of a noun ; per- 
sonal — it always represents the same person ; masculine 
gender; singular number, and third person, because John, 
the noun for which it stands is, and with which it agrees, 
according to 

Rule V. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which 
they stand in gender, number and person. Nom. he ; poss. 
his; obj. him; made in the possessive case because it im- 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 113 

plies possession or ownership, and is governed by the noun 
hat, according to 

Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the follow- 
ing noun. 

Hat, is a noun, because it is a name ; common, because 
it is a general name ; neuter gender, it is the name of an 
object that is neither male nor female ; third person, it is 
spoken of ; singular number, it means but one ; and is in the 
objective case, because it is the object of the active trans- 
itive verb found, and is governed by it, according to 

Rule VIII. Active transitive verbs govern the objective 
case. 

In, is a preposition, a word used to connect words together, 
and thereby show the relation between them. It here shows 
the relation between hat and road. 

The, is an article, a word placed before nouns to limit their 
meaning ; definite, it means some particular road, and be- 
longs to the noun road, according to 

Rule III. The definite article, the, belongs to nouns in 
the singular or plural number. 

Road, is a noun, because it is a name ; common, because 
it is a general name ; neuter gender, because it is the name 
of an object that is neither male nor female ; third person, 
it is spoken of ; singular number, it means but one ; and in 
the objective case, because it is the object of the relation 
denoted by the preposition in, and is governed by it accord- 
ing to 

Rule X. Prepositions govern the objective case. 

When you become perfectly familiar with attributing to 
each part of speech its various properties, as in the forego- 
ing mode of parsing, you can then parse according to the 
following concise plan: 

"John found his hat in the road." 



114 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

John, is a proper noun, masc. gender, sing. num. and 
third person, nominative to the verb found, according to 
Rule VI. 

Found, is an irregular active transitive verb, made in the 
indicative mood, imperfect tense, singular number, and 
third person, and agrees with its nominative John, accord- 
ing to Rule VII. 

His, is a personal pronoun, masc. gender, singular num- 
ber and third person, and in the possessive case, governed 
by the noun hat, according to Rule I. 

Hat, is a common noun, neut. gender, sing, number, and 
third person, in the objective case, governed by the active 
transitive verb found, according to Rule VIII. 

In, is a preposition, and shows the relation between hat 
and road. 

The, is a definite article, and belongs to the noun road, 
according to Rule III. 

Road, is a common noun, neut. gender, sing, number, and 
third person, in the objective case, and governed by the 
preposition in, according to Rule X. 

Parse. "I found John and William in the garden with 
their father and mohter." 

Model. And is a copulative conjunction ; a word used to 
connect words and sentences ; it connects John and William 
in the same case. According to 

Rule XL Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the 
same mood and tense, and nouns and pronouns of the same 
case. 

The other and connects father and mother in the same 
case. You observe that John and William are the objects 
of the active transitive verb found, and father and mother 
are the objects of the relation denoted by the preposition 
with, and governed by it according to Rule X. The other 
words are parsed as before. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 115 

You have now a model for parsing all the parts of speech, 
except the interjection, which will give you no trouble. If 
you understand what you have been through, your future 
success is assured. It is not the amount you study that will 
improve your mind, but the manner in which you study it. 
If you have studied in the proper manner, you will have no 
difficulty in parsing the following: 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"The business will be regulated." "The king was 
crowned at "Westminster Abbey." "Thomas has been es- 
teemed." "John was applauded for his eloquence." 
"James will be rewarded by his instructor." "The girl 
was ridiculed by her companions." "Susan was respected 
for her virtuous conduct." "We will be esteemed." 

"We may be esteemed." "He might have been pro- 
moted." "William would have been dethroned." "Jus- 
tice may have been stayed." "The task must be per- 
formed." "We should not be easily disheartened in a good 
cause." 

"If he be rewarded." "If I am noticed." "Unless he 
be punished." "Although they are respected." "Colum- 
bus discovered America." "America was discovered by 
Columbus." "John wounded his brother." "John's brother 
was wounded by him." "The boy who visited me in Sep- 
tember, died in the City of Boston." "The man whom I 
found, perished in a storm of snow." "Although you will 
be disappointed." "If the man had been elected." "Ex- 
cept he repent." "Susan assisted the little girl." "The 
little girl was assisted by Susan." "Pain follows pleasure." 
"Pleasure is followed by pain." "They that seek knowl- 
edge will find it." "That lion which was exhibited in this 
town has been killed by his keeper." 



116 



CARROLL* S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Irregular verbs are those which do not in the indicative 
mood form their imperfect tense and perfect participle by 
adding to the present tense ed or d only when the verb ends 

in e, as : 

Present Tense. Imperfect Tense. Perfect Participle. 

Go, Went, Gone. 

Begin, Began, Begun. 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Some irregular verbs admit likewise a regular form. 



Present Tense. 


Imperfect Tense. 


Perf. or Pass. Participle. 


Abide, 


Abode, 


Abode. 


Am — is, 


Was, 


Been. 


Arise, 


Arose, 


Arisen. 


Awake, 


Awoke, awaked, 


Awaked. 


Bear (to bring forth), Bore, bare, 


Born. 


Bear (to carry), 


Bore, 


Borne. 


Beat, 


Beat, 


Beat, beaten. 


Begin, 


Began, 


Begun. 


Bend, 


Bended, bent, 


Bended, bent. 


Bereave, 


Bereaved, bereft, 


Bereaved, bereft. 


Beseech, 


Besought, 


Besougbt, 


Bestride, 


Bestrid, bestrode, 


Bestrid, bestridden. 


Betide, 


Betid, betided, 


Betid. 


Bid, 


Bid, bade, 


Bid, bidden. 


Bind, 


Bound, 


Bound. 


Bite, 


Bit, 


Bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


Bled, 


Bled. 


Blow, 


Blew, 


Blown. 


Break, 


Broke, 


Broken. 


Breed, 


Bred, 


Bred. 


Bring, 


Brought, 


Brought. 


Build, 


Built, builded, 


Built, builded. 


Burn, 


Burned, burnt, 


Burned, burnt. 


Burst, 


Burst, 


Burst. 


Buy, 


Bought, 


Bought. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 



117 



Present Tense. 


Imperfect Tense. 


Perf. or Pass. Participh 


Cast, 


Cast, 


Cast. 


Catch, 


Caught, catched, 


Caught, catched. 


Chide, 


Chid, 


Chid, chidden. 


Choose, 


Chose, 


Chosen, chose. 


Cleave (to split), 


Cleft, clove, 


Cleft, cloven. 


Cling, 


Clung, 


Clung, 


Clothe, 


Clothed, clad, 


Clothed, clad. 


Come, 


. Came, 


Come. 


Cost, 


Cost, 


Cost. 


Creep, 


Crept, 


Cr,ept. 


Crow, 


Crew, crowed, 


Crowed. 


Cut, 


Cut, 


Cut. 


Dare (to venture), 


Dared, durst, 


Dared. 


Deal, 


Dealed, dealt, 


Dealed, dealt. 


Dig, 


Dug, digged, 


Dug, digged. 


Do, 


Did, 


Done. 


Draw, 


Drew, 


Drawn. 


Dream, 


Dreamed, dreamt, 


Dreamed, dreamt. 


Drink, 


Drank, 


Drunk, drank. 


Drive, 


Drove, 


Driven. 


Dwell, 


Dwelled, dwelt, 


Dwelled, dwelt. 


Eat, 


Eat, ate, 


Eat, eaten. 


Fall, 


Fell, 


Fallen. 


Feed, 


Fed, 


Fed. 


Feel, 


Felt, 


Felt. 


Fight, 


Fought, 


Fought. 


Find, 


Found, 


Found. 


Flee, 


Fled, 


Fled. 


Fling, 


Flung, 


Flung. 


Fly, 


Flew, 


Flown. 


Forsake, 


Forsook, 


Forsaken. 


Freeze, 


Froze, 


Frozen. 


Get, 


Got, 


Got, gotten. 


Gild, 


Gilded, gilt, 


Gilded, gilt. 


Gird, 


Girded, girt, 


Girded, girt. 


Give, 


Gave, 


Given. 


Go, 


Went, 


Gone. 


Grave, 


Graved, 


Graven, graved. 



118 



CARROLL S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



Present Tense. 


Imperfect Tense. 


Perf. or Pass. Participle 


Grind, 


Ground, 




Ground. 


Grow, 


Grew, 




Grown. 


Hang, 


Hanged, hung, 


Hanged, hung. 


Have, 


Had, 




Had. 


Hear, 


Heard, 




Heard. 


Heave, 


Heaved, 


hove, 


Heaved. 


Hew, 


Hewed, 




Hewed, hewn. 


Hide, 


Hid, 




Hid, hidden. 


Hit, 


Hit, 




Hit. 


Hold, 


Held, 




Held. 


Hurt, 


' Hurt, 




Hurt. 


Keep, 


Kept, 




Kept. 


Kneel, 


Kneeled. 


, knelt, 


Kneeled, knelt. 


Knit, 


Knit, knitted, 


Knit, knitted. 


Know, 


Knew, 




Known. 


Lade, 


Laded, 




Laded, laden. 


Lay, 


Laid, 




Laid. 


Lead, 


Led, 




Led. 


Leave, 


Left, 




Left. 


Lend, 


Lent, 




Lent. 


Let, 


Let, 




Let. 


Lie (to recline), 


Lay, 




Lain. 


Light, 


Lighted, 


lit, 


Lighted, lit. 


Lose, 


Lost, 




Lost. 


Make, 


Made, 




Made. 


Mean, 


Meant, 




Meant. 


Meet, 


Met, 




Met. 


Mow, 


Mowed, 




Mowed, mown. 


Pay, 


Paid, 




Paid. 


Pen (to coop), 


Penned, 


pent, 


Penned, pent. 


Put, 


Put, 




Put. 


Quit, 


Quit, quitted, 


Quit, quitted. 


Read, 


Read, 




Read. 


Rend, 


Rent, 




Rent. 


Rid, 


Rid, ridden, 


Rid, ridden. 


Ride, 


Rode, 




Ridden. 


Ring, 


Rang, rung, 


Rung. 


Rise, 


Rose, 




Risen. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 



119 



Present Tense. 


Imperfect Tense. 


Perf.orPass. Participle, 


Rive, 


Rived, 


Rived, riven. 


Run, 


Ran, run, 


Run. 


Say, 


Said, 


Said. 


Saw, 


Sawed, 


Sawed, sawn. 


See, 


Saw, 


Seen. 


Seek, 


Sought, 


Sought. 


Seethe, 


Seethed, 


Seethed, sodden. 


Sell, 


Sold, 


Sold. 


Send, 


Sent, 


Sent. 


Set, 


Set, 


Set. 


Shake, 


Shook, 


Shaken, 


Shape, 


Shaped, 


Shaped, shapen. 


Shave, 


Shaved, 


Shaved, shaven. 


Shear, 


Sheared, 


Sheared, shorn. 


Shed, 


Shed, 


Shed. 


Shine, 


Shone, shined, 


Shone, shined. 


Shoe, 


Shod, 


Shod. 


Shoot, 


Shot, 


Shot. 


Show, 


Showed, 


Shown, showed. 


Shred, 


Shred, 


Shred. 


Shrink, 


Shrunk, shrank, 


Shrunk, shrunken. 


Shut, 


Shut, 


Shut. 


Sing, 


Sung, sang, 


Sung. 


Sink, 


Sunk, sank, 


Sunk. 


Sit, 


Sat, 


Sat. 


Slay, 


Slew, 


Slain. 


Sleep, 


Slept, 


Slept. 


Slide, 


Slid, 


Slid, slidden. 


Sling, 


Slung, 


Slung. 


Slink, 


Slunk, 


Slunk. 


Slit, 


Slit, slitted, 


Slit, slitted. 


Smell, 


Smelled, smelt, 


Smelled, smelt. 


Smite, 


Smote, 


Smitten, srnit. 


Sow, 


Sowed, 


Sowed, sown. 


Speak, 


Spoke, spake, 


Spoken, 


Speed, 


Sped, speeded, 


Sped, speeded. 


Spell, 


Spelled, spelt, 


Spelled, spelt. 


Spend. 


Spent, 


Spent. 



120 



CARROLL S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



Present Tense. 


Imperfect Tense. 


Per/, or Pass. Participh 


Spill, 


Spilled, spilt, 


Spilled, spilt. 


Spin. 


Spun, 


Spun. 


Spit, 


Spit, spat, 


Spit. 


Split, 


Split, splitted, 


Split, splitted. 


Spoil, 


Spoiled, spoilt, 


Spoiled, spoilt. 


Spread, 


Spread, 


Spread. 


Spring, 


Sprung, sprang, 


Sprung. 


Stand, 


Stood, 


Stood. 


Stave, 


Staved, stove, 


Staved, stove. 


Stay, 


Stayed, staid, 


Stayed, staid. 


Steal, 


Stole, 


Stolen. 


Stick, 


Stuck, 


Stuck. 


Sting, 


Stung, 


Stung. 


Stink, 


Stunk, 


Stunk. 


Strew, 


Strewed, 


Strewed, strewn. 


Stride, 


Strid, strode, 


Strid, stridden. 


Strike, 


Struck, 


Struck, stricken. 


String, 


Strung, 


Strung. 


Strive, 


Strove, 


Striven. 


Swear, 


Swore, 


Sworn. 


Sweat, 


Sweat, sweated, 


Sweat, sweated. 


Sweep, 


Swept, 


Swept. 


Swell, 


Swelled, 


Swelled, swollen. 


Swim, 


Swam, swum, 


Swum. 


Swing, 


Swung, 


Swung. 


Take. 


Took, 


Taken. 


Teach, 


Taught, 


Taught. 


TeaT, 


Tore, 


Torn. 


Tell, 


Told, 


Told. 


Think, 


Thought, 


Thought. 


Thrive, 


Thrived, throve, 


Thrived, thriven. 


Throw, 


Threw, 


Thrown. 


Thrust, 


Thrust, 


Thrust. 


Tread, 


Trod, trode, 


Trod, trodden. 


Wax, 


Waxed, 


Waxed, waxen. 


Wear, 


Wore, 


Worn. 


Weave, 


Wove, weaved, 


Woven, weaved. 


Weep, 


Wept, 


Wept. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED 121 



Present Tense. 


Imperfect Tense. 


Perf. or Pass. Participle. 


Wet, 


Wet, wetted, 


Wet, wetted. 


Win, 


Won, 


Won. 


Wind, 


Wound, 


Wound. 


Work, 


Worked, wrought, 


Worked, wrought. 


Wring, 


Wrung, 


Wrung. 


Write, 


Wrote, 


Written. 



We say "I have seen," "I had seen," and "I am seen," 
using the participle seen instead of saw; hence, 

Note VI. We should use participles, only after have and 
had, and the verb to be. 

Of regular verbs, the imperfect tense and perfect partici- 
ple are alike ; but of most irregular verbs, the imperfect 
tense and perfect participle are different. When this is the 
case, the imperfect tense should not be used associated with 
have or had or the verb to be; neither should the perfect par- 
ticiple be used instead of the imperfect tense. 

In the following exercises you will find violations of Note 
VI. The errors are in italics. Correct them and then parse 
the sentences : 

"John has wrote, a letter ;" "He done it well." "The sun 
has rose." "I seen him yesterday." "He done his task." 
"The birds have flew away." "The sun risen yesterday in 
a cloud." "The book was gave to me." "The post was 
drove into the ground." "The task is began." "I had 
went with him." "My brother has not spoke to-day." 
"The thief has stole my watch." "His copy was wrote 
well." "He was smote on his cheek." "My father has 
came." "He come yesterday. " "John has awoke by the 
noise." "Mary has chose the better part." "He drunk to 
excess." "His friends have forsook him." "He was not 
forsook by his children." "He was took and bound." 
"The cloth is wove." "John has wrote his copy." 



122 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

GOVERNMENT OF THE INFINITIVE. 

When I say, "John begins to read," to read is a verb in 
the infinitive mood ; and it follows, as you perceive, the verb 
begins; hence we say that it is governed by begins. 

' 'He is beginning to read. ' ' Here the infinitive follows the 
participle beginning; it is therefore governed by beginning. 

"He is eager to learn." Here the infinitive follows the 
adjective eager; we therefore say that it is governed by 
eager. 

"He has an opportunity to learn." Here the infinitive to 
learn is governed by the noun opportunity. 

In like manner the infinitive may be governed by pro- 
nouns ; as, "There is a fine opportunity for him to learn." 
Hence, 

RULE XII. 

The infinitive mood may be governed by verbs, partici- 
ples, adjectives, nouns and pronouns. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"James begins to learn." 

To learn is a regular active transitive verb. Pres. learn ; 
Imperf. learned ; Perf. Part, learned ; made in the Infinitive 
mood, Present tense, and governed by begins, according to 
Rule XII. 

James and begins are parsed as before. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

"George desires to learn." "He is eager to learn." 
"He has a desire to study." "It seems to please John." 
"William has come to see us." "A knowledge of the rules 
of grammar teaches us to write correctly." "We may be 
taught to write, read and spell." 

Ommission of to the usual sign of the infinitive. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 123 

"John saw the man strike the. boy." "The tutor bade 
him do it." "I heard the clock strike." "The soldiers 
dare not rebel." 

You can now understand why the verb in the infinitive 
mood is a noun, and may be used in any capacity in which 
other nouns are used. 

In connection with Rule XII we have : 

Note VII. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by 
conjunctions or adverbs ; as, "The summit of a mountain, so 
high as to be invisible." 

EXAMPLES. 

"They are about to depart." "He desired no more than 
to know his duty." "He is wise enough to study." 

PARTICIPLES. 

We have before seen that participles partake of the nature 
of two parts of speech, namely verbs and adjectives. One 
point of resemblance which participles have to adjectives is, 
in referring to some noun in the sentence in which they are 
used ; as, "The sun is setting." Here the participle setting 
is said to refer to the noun sun; hence, 

RULE XIII. — Participles refer to nouns. 

All participles are compound in their meaning and office. 
Like verbs, they express action and being, and denote time; 
and, like adjectives, they describe the nouns of which they 
denote the action or being. In the sentences, "The boat- 
man is crossing the river;" "I see a man laboring in the 
field ;" "Charles is standing" — you perceive that the parti- 
ciples crossing and laboring express the actions of the boat- 
man and the man, and standing the state of being of Charles. 
In these respects, then, they partake of the nature of verbs. 
You also notice that they describe the several nouns associ- 
ated with them, like describing adjectives : and that in this 



124 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

respect they participate the properties of adjectives. And, 
furthermore, you observe they denote actions which are 
still going on ; that is, incomplete or unfinished actions ; for 
which reason we call them imperfect participles. 

Perhaps I can illustrate their character more clearly. 
When the present and perfect participles are placed be- 
fore nouns, they become denning or describing adjec- 
ives, and are called participial adjectives; as, A loving 
companion ; The rippling stream ; Roaring winds ; A wilted 
leaf; An accomplished scholar. Here the words loving, 
rippling, roaring, wilted and accomplished, describe or 
define the nouns with which they are associated. And 
where the participles are placed after their nouns, they have, 
also, this descriptive quality. If I say, I see the moon ris- 
ing; The horse is running a race ; The dog is beaten; I de- 
scribe the several objects, as a rising moon, a running horse, 
and a beaten dog, as well as when I place these participles 
before the nouns. The same word is a participle or a par- 
ticipial adjective, according to its manner of meaning (that 
is, the manner in which it is used). The preceding illus- 
tration, however, shows that this distinction is founded on 
a very slight shade of difference in the meaning of the two. 
The following examples will enable you to distinguish the 
one from the other : 

PARTICIPLES. PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 

"See the sua setting."' "See the setting sun." 

"See the moon rising.^ "See the rising moon.*' 

"The wind is roaring." 1 "Hear the roaring wind. 1 ' 

"The twig is broken.' 1 '' "The broken twig fell." 

"The vessel anchored in the bay "The anchored vessel spreads 
lost her mast." her sails." 



ETYMOI4OGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 125 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

'■'■The wind is rising." 

Rising is a present active participle, from the irregular 
verb to rise — pres. rise ; imp. rose ; perf . or pass. part, risen ; 
and it refers to the noun wind, according to Rule XIII. 

PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 

" The rising sun cheers us." 

Rising is a participial adjective, from the verb to rise; 
pres. rise ; imp. rose ; perf. part, risen ; and belongs to sun, 
according to Rule IV. 

Participial adjectives are not compared. 

RULE XIV. 

Active participles, from active transitive verbs, govern the 
objective case. 

Remark. — Whether the active participle derived from an 
active transitive verb be used in forming a compound tense 
of a verb, or as a participial adjective, or as a noun, it always 
governs an objective case ; because it always has the exten- 
sion that the verb from which it is derived has — that is, it 
introduces an idea which it does not express, and requires 
some other word to express this idea and complete the sense. 
If you keep steadily in mind the true principles of govern- 
ment, all difficulties will vanish, and you can understand 
that, although the participle is governed by some other 
word, yet it retains its power of government. 

The present participle when used as a noun, often has the 
definite article the before it, and the preposition of after it ; 
as, "By the observing of truth, you will command respect." 
With equal propriety, however, it may be said, "By observ- 
ing truth," &c, omitting both the article and the preposi- 



126 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

tion. If we use the article without the preposition, or the 
preposition without the article, the expression will appear 
awkward ; hence, 

Note VIII. The definite article the should be used before, 
and the preposition of after participial nouns, or they should 
both be omitted. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"James is beating John." 

John is a proper noun ; mas. gender, sing, number, and 
third person; in the objective case, and governed by the 
active participle beating, according to Rule XIV. 

"He delights in fighting." 

Fighting is a participial noun; neut. gender, sing, number, 
and third person; in the objective case, and governed by the 
preposition in, according to Rule X. 

"You will much oblige me by sending those books." 

Sending, is & participial noun, &c. ,in the objective case, and 
governed by the preposition by, according to Rule X. 

Books, is a common noun; neut. gender, plur. number, and 
third person; in the objective case, and governed by the 
active participle sending, according to Rule XIV. 

The other words in the foregoing sentences are parsed as 
before. 

CORRECT AND PARSE THE FOLLOWING: 

"In writing of his letter he made some mistakes." "In 
the regarding his interests, he neglected the public affairs." 
"Keeping of one day in seven is required of Christians." 
"By the observing these rules, he will avoid mistakes." 

THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 

As before stated, the verbs have, be, will and do, when 
they are unconnected with a principal verb, expressed or 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 127 

understood, are not auxiliaries, bat principal verbs ; as, 
"We have enough;" "I am grateful ;" "He wills it to be 
so;" "They do as they please." "In this view, they also 
have their auxiliaries ; as, "I shall have enough; "I ivill be 
grateful," &c. 

The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear 
from the following account of them : 

Do and did mark the action itself, or the time of it, with 
greater energy and positiveness ; as, "I do speak truth;" 
"I did respect him ;" "Here am I, for thou didst call me." 
They are of great use in negative sentences ; as, "I do not 
fear; "I did not write." They are almost universally 
employed in asking questions which may be answered by 
yes or no; as "Does he learn?" '■'■Did he not write?" They 
sometimes also supply the place of another verb, and make 
the repetition of it, in the same or a subsequent sentence, 
unnecessary; as, "You attend not to your studies as he 
does;" (i. e. "as he attends," &c.) "I shall come, if I can; 
but if I do not, please to excuse me;" (i. e. "if I come 
not.") 

May and might express the possibility or liberty of doing 
a thing; can and could, the power; as, "It may rain ;" "I 
may write or read ;" "He might have improved more than 
he has;" "He can write much better than he could last 
year." 

Must is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes 
necessity; as, "We must speak the truth, whenever we do 
speak, and we must not prevaricate." 

Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates 
resolution and promising ; in the second and third persons 
it only foretells ; as, "I will reward the good, and will pun- 
ish the wicked ;" "We will remember benefits, and be grate- 
ful ;" "Thou wilt, or he will, repent of that folly;" "You, 
or they, will have a pleasant walk." 



128 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretells ; 
in the second and third persons, it promises, commands, or 
threatens; as, "I shall go abroad;" "We shall dine at 
home ;" "Thou shall, or you shall, inherit the land;" "Ye 
shall do justice, and love mercy ;" "They shall account for 
their misconduct." The following passage is not translated 
according to the distinct and proper meanings of the words 
shall and will: "Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me 
all the days of my life ; and I will dwell in the house of the 
Lord forever." It ought to be, '■'■■will follow me," and "I 
shall dwell." The foreigner who, as it is said, fell into the 
Thames, and cried out, "I will be drowned! Nobody shall 
help me!" made a sad misapplication of these auxiliaries. 

These observations respecting the import of the verbs will 
and shall must be understood of explicative sentences ; for 
when the sentence is interrogative, just the reverse, for the 
most part, takes place; thus "I shall go," "you tvill go," 
express event only ; but ti Will you go?" imports intention ; 
and "Shall I go?" refers to the will of another. "But, 
"He shall go," and, "Shall he go?" both imply will; 
expressing or referring to a command. 

When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, the mean- 
ing of these auxiliaries, likewise, undergoes some alteration, 
as the learners will readily perceive by a few examples: 
"He shall proceed;" "If he shall proceed;" "You shall 
consent; "If you shall consent." These auxiliaries are 
sometimes interchanged in the indicative and subjunctive 
moods, to convey the same meaning of the auxiliary ; as, 
"He will not return;" "If he shall not return;" He shall 
not return;" "If heivill not return." 

Would primarily denotes inclination of will; and should, 
obligation ; but they both vary their import, and are often 
used to express simple event. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 129 

Do and have are sometimes used as principal verbs, 
according to the following : 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. I do. I have. 

Imp. I did. I had. 

Perf. I have done. I have had. 

Plup. I had done. I had had. 

1. Fut. I shall or will do. I shall or will have. 

2. Fut. I shall have done. I shall have had. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Pres. I may or can do. I may or can have. 

Imp. I might, could, would, I might, could, would, or should 

or should do. have. 

Perf. I may or can have done. I may or can have had. 
Plup. I might, could, would, or I might, could, would, or should 

should have done. have had. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pres. If I do. If I have, &c. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Do you or Do you Have you or Do you 

do. have. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. To do. To have. 

Perf. To have done. To have had. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Doing. Having. 

Perf. Done. Had. 

Comp. Perf. Having done. Having had. 



130 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

Q. — What are defective verbs? 

A. — Defective verbs are those which are used only in some 
of the moods and tenses. The following are the principal 
ones: 



resent Tense 




Imperfect Tense, 


Perf. Participle, 


May, 






Might, 


(wanting.) 


Can, 






Could, 


(wanting.) 


Will, 






Would, 


(wanting.) 


Shall, 






Should, 


(wanting.) 


Must, 






Must, 


(wanting.) 


Ought, 






Ought, 
Quoth, 


(wanting.) 






Of these, 


ought 


and 


must, you 


perceive, are not vai 



Q. — How are ought and quoth always 
their tenses determined? 

^1. — Ought and quoth are always used as principal verbs. 
Ought is the same in the imperfect tense, as in the present, 
and is always followed by an infinitive; as, "He ought to 
study;" "He ought to have read. " In this last example, 
ought is in the imperfect ; and in the first, it is in the present. 
This we determine by the infinitive, which follows the verb, 
thus: When the present infinitive follows ought, ought is 
in the present tense ; but when the perfect infinitive fol- 
lows it, it is in the imperfect tense. 

Q. — Are verbs ever used in a transitive and in an in- 
transitive and neuter manner? 

.1. — In English, verbs are often used both in a transitive 
and an intransitive, or neuter signification. Thus, to spread 
is an active transitive verb in the sentence, "He spread the 
report through the town ;" but it is intransitive in the sen- 
tence, "The report spread through the town." 

Q. — How may neuter verbs become compound active 
transitive verbs? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 131 

A. — A neuter or intransitive verb, b}' the addition of a 
preposition, may become a compound active transitive 
verb; as, to smile is intransitive; it cannot, therefore, be 
followed by an objective case, nor be changed into the pas- 
sive form. We cannot sa}% "She smiled him," or, "He was 
smiled ;" but we say, very properly, "She smiled on him." 
"He was smiled on by her." 

Q. — How do prepositions affect the meaning of verbs? 

A. — Prepositions affect the meaning of verbs in different 
ways. To cast means to throw; as, "He cast a stone at her." 
To cast up, however, means to compute; as, "He casts up 
his accounts." In all instances in which the preposition 
follows the verb, and modifies its meaning, it should be con- 
sidered a part of the verb, and be so treated in parsing. 

Q. — What class of verbs which indicate no action, admit 
an objective case after them? 

A. — As before stated, there are some verbs, which, al- 
though they admit an objective case after them, still do not 
indicate the least degree of action; as, "I resemble my 
father." This seeming inconsistency may be easily recon- 
ciled by reflecting that, in all such cases, the verb has a 
direct reference to its object. Of this nature are the verbs 
retain, resemble, own, have, &c. 

Q. — Do any neuter or intransitive verbs admit a passive 
form? 

A. — Some neuter or intransitive verbs admit of a passive 
form, and are thence called neuter passive verbs ; as, "John 
goes home to-night." Here, goes is an intransitive verb. 
But in the sentence, "John is gone home," is gone is a neu- 
ter passive verb. Again, in the phrase, "William ccmies," 
comes is an intransitive verb ; and in the phrase, "William 
is come," is come is a neuter passive verb. 



132 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

EXERCISES IN SYXTAX. 

"William had many advantages before he improved them 
in a proper manner." 'jHe has had many precious oppor- 
tunities." "John will do as his instructor directs." "A 
good scholar will not do what is forbidden by his instruc- 
tor." "He may have had time." "I own this book." "I 
cannot believe him." "Charles resembles his parents." 
"His father does not hesitate to trust him." "He retains 
his place." "The farmer casts seed into the ground." 
"She smiles sweetly." "She smiled on John." "The mer- 
chant casts up his accounts often." "John was smiled on 
by fortune in every undertaking." "Mary was gone before 
her mother came." "The instructor has come." "Our in- 
structor has come." "Susan has gone." "John has gone 
to visit his parents." "William is come home from Paris." 

ADVERBS. 

Q. — What are adverbs? 

A. — Adverbs are words joined to verbs, participles, ad- 
jectives and other adverbs, to qualify them ; as, ' 'John speaks 
distinctly;" "He is writing rapidly;" "He is remarkably 
diligent;" and "He reads very correctly." 

Q. — What does to modify or qualify mean? 

A. — To modify or qualify, means to produce some change. 
The adverb modifies or qualifies. If I say "Wirt's style 
excels Irving's," the proposition is affirmative, and the verb 
excels expresses the affirmation. But when I say "Wirt's 
style excels not Irving's," the assertion is changed to a neg- 
ative. What is it that thus qualifies or changes the meaning 
of the verb excels? You perceive that it is the little word 
not. This word kas power to reverse the meaning of the 
sentence. Not, then, is a modifier, qualifier or negative 
adverb. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 133 

Q. — How do adverbs generally modify verbs and parti- 
ciples? 

A. — When an adverb is used to modify the sense of a 
verb or participle, it generally expresses the manner, time 
or place, in which the action is performed, or some acci- 
dental circumstance respecting it. In the phrases, "The 
man rides gracefully, awkwardly, badly, siviftly, sloivly," 
&c. ; or, "I saw the man riding swiftly, sloivly, leisurely, 
very fast," &c, you perceive that the words gracefully, 
awkwardly, very fast, &c, are adverbs, qualifying the verb 
rides, or the participle riding, because they express the 
manner in which the action denoted by the verb and parti- 
ciple is done. 

In the phrases, "The man rides daily, weekly, seldom, 
frequently, often, sometimes, never;" or, "The man rode 
yesterday, heretofore, long since, long ago, recently, lately, 
just now" or, "The man will ride soon, presently, directly, 
by and by, to-day, hereafter," you perceive that all these 
words in italics are adverbs qualifying the meaning of the 
"verb rides; because they express the time of the action de- 
noted by the verb. 

Again, if I say, "The man lives here, near by, yonder, re- 
mote, far off, somewhere, nowhere, everywhere," &c. , the 
words in italics are adverbs of place, because they tell 
where he lives. 

Q. — How do adverbs qualify adjectives and other ad- 
verbs? 

A. — Adverbs likewise qualify adjectives, and sometimes 
other adverbs; as, more wise, most wise; or, more wisely, 
most wisely. When an adverb is joined to an adjective or 
adverb, it generally expresses the degree of comparison; 
for adverbs, like adjectives, have degrees of comparison. 
Thus, in the phrase, " A skillful artist," you know the ad- 



134 



CARROLL S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



jective skillful is in the positive degree ; but, by placing the 
adverb more before the adjective, we increase the degree of 
quality denoted by the adjective to the comparative ; as, 
"A more skillful artist;" and most renders it superlative, 
as, "A most skillful artist;" and if we place more and most 
before other adverbs, the effect is the same ; as, skillfully, 
more skillfully, most skillfully. 





COMPARISON OF 


ADVERBS. 


Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Soon, 


Sooner, 


Soonest. 


Often, 


Oftener, 


Oftenest. 


Much, 


More, 


Most. 


Well, 


Better, 


Best. 


Far, 


Farther, 


Farthest. 


Wisely, 


More wisely, 


Most wisely. 


Justly, 


More justly, 


Most justly. 


Justly, 


Less justly, 


Least justly. 


Badly, or ill, 


Worse, 


Worst. 



Q. — How may adverbs be generally known? 

A. — You will generally know an adverb at sight, but 
sometimes you will find it more difficult to be distinguished 
than any other part of speech in the English language. I 
will, therefore, give you some signs which will assist you. 

Most words ending in ly are adverbs ; such as politely, 
gracefully, judiciously. &c. Any word or short phrase that 
will answer to any one of the questions, Hon-? How much? 
lllien? or Where? is an adverb ; as, "The river flows rapid- 
ly;" "He walks eery fast ;" "He has gone far away, but he 
will soon return;" "She sings sweetly;" "They learn none 
at all.' 3 How, or in what manner, does the river flow? 
Rapidly. How does he walk? Very fast. Where has he 
gone? Far away. When will he return? Soon. How 
does she sing? Siveetly. How much do they learn? None 
at all. From this illustration you will perceive that, if you 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 135 

could not tell these adverbs by the sense, you would know 
them by their answering to the questions. However, your 
better way will be to distinguish adverbs by considering 
the office they perform in the sentence ; or by noticing their 
grammatical relation, or their situation, with respect to 
other words. If any qualifying word is again modified, or 
qualified, this additional modification or qualification must 
be made by an adverb. Rapidly, fust, soon, far away, 
sweetly, &c. , are known to be adverbs by their qualifying 
the sense of verbs. "A very good pen writes extremely 
well." Well, in this sentence, is known to be an adverb by 
its qualifying the sense of the verb writes; extremely, by its 
ending in ly, or by its being joined to the adverb well to 
qualify it ; and very is known as an adverb by its joining 
and qualifying the adjective good. 

Q. — How many classes of adverbs are there? 

A. — Adverbs, though very numerous, may, for the sake 
of practical convenience, be reduced to eleven particular 
classes : 

1. Of Number — As, once, twice, thrice, &c. 

2. Of Order — As, first, secondly, thirdly, lastly, finally, 
&c. 

3. Of Place — As, here, there, where, elsewhere, any- 
where, somewhere, nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thith- 
er, upward, downward, forward, backward, whence, hence, 
thence, whithersoever, &c. 

4. Of Time — Of time present; as, now, to-day, &c. 

Of time past; as, already, before, lately, yesterday, here- 
tofore, hitherto, long since, long ago, &c. 

Of time to come; as, to-morrow, not yet, hereafter, hence- 
forth, henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, im- 
mediately, ere long, straightways, &c. 



136 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

Of time indefinite; as, oft, often, oftrtimes, often-times, 
sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, 
always, when, then, ever, never, again, &c. 

5. Of Quantity — As, much, little, sufficiently, how much, 
how great, enough, abundantly, &c. 

6. Of Manner ov Quality — As, wisely, foolishly, justly, 
unjustly, quickly, slowly, &c. Adverbs of quality are the 
most numerous kind, and they are generally formed by add- 
ing the termination ly to an adjective or participle, or by 
changing le into ly ; as, bad, badly; cheerful, cheerfully; 
able, ably ; admirable, admirably. 

7. Of Doubt — As, haply, perhaps, peradventure, possi- 
bly, &c. 

8. Of Affirmation — As, verily, truly, undoubtedly, 
doubtless, yea, certainly, yes, surely, indeed, really, &c. 

9. Of Negation — As, nay, no, not, by no means, not at 
all, in no wise, &c. 

10. Of Interrogation — As, how, why, wherefore, whither, 
whether, &c, and sometimes when, whence, where, &c. 

11. Of comparison — As, more, most, better, best, worse, 
worst, less, least, very, almost, little, alike, &c. 

Q. — What are adverdial phrases? 

A. — Expressions like these : none at all, a great deal, a 
few days ago, long since, at length, in rain, &c, when they 
are used to denote the. manner or time of the actions of 
verbs or participles, are generally called adverbial phrases. 

Most adverbs express in one word what would otherwise 
require two or more words; as, "He did it here," for "He 
did it in this place; there, for in that place; where, for in 
what place; now, for at this time. Why means for ivhat 
reason; how, in what mind, mood, mode or manner; exceed- 
ingly, to a great degree; very, in an eminent degree. Often 
and seldom signify many times, few times, 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 137 

For a full explanation of adverbs see Carroll's Large 
Grammar, page 132, &c. 

EULE IX. 

Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives and other 
adverbs. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTX. 

In vain we look for perfect hapiness. 

In vain is an adverbial phrase, and qualifies look, accord- 
ing to Rule IX. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

"John has come again, but William has not." "Very- 
many persons fail of happiness." A vast many evils are in- 
cident to man in his wearisome journey through life." 
"The instructress has at length arrived." "William acted 
very nobly." "I will by no means consent." "He wrote 
a long letter a few days ago." "John was writing care- 
lessly." "I have admonished her once and again." "A 
few days ago, there was much excitement in town." 

You remember that adjectives qualify as well as adverbs ; 
hence, 

Note IX. To qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and 
other adverbs, we should use adverbs ; but to qualify nouns, 
we should use adjectives. 

sentences to be corrected and parsed. 

"William writes good." "Susan studies diligent." "He 
speaks fluently and reasons correct." "John writes toler- 
able well, but reads miserable." "Harriet dresses neat." 
"On conditions suitably to his rank." "He speaks very 
correct." "Mary sings admirable." "He writes elegant." 
"He reads and spells very bad." 



138 



CARROLL S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

Q. — What are prepositions? 

A. — Prepositions are words used to connect words to- 
gether, and thereby show the relation between them ; as, 
"He went from London to York ;" "She is above disguise ;" 
"They are supported by industry." 

The following is a list of the principal prepositions : 



Aboard. 


Behind. 


From. 


Throughout. 


About. 


Below. 


In, into. 


Till. 


Above. 


Beneath. 


Notwithstand 


'g To. 


According to. 


Beside, besides 


.Of. 


Touching. 


Across. 


Between. 


Off. 


Toward, toward! 


After. 


Betwixt. 


On. 


Under. 


Against. 


Beyond. 


Out of. 


Underneath. 


Along. 


By. 


Over. 


Until. 


Amid, amidst. 


Concerning. 


Past. 


Unto. 


Among, am'gst 


;. Down. 


Regarding. 


Up. 


Around. 


During 


Eespecting. 


Upon. 


At. 


Except. 


Bound. 


With. 


Athwart. 


Excepting. 


Since. 


Within. 


Before. 


For. 


Through. 


Without. 



Q. — How are some compound verbs formed? 

A. — We frequently meet with verbs compounded of a 
preposition and verb, as, "to iq)ho\d," to "«'»vest," "to 
overlook;" and this composition gives a new sense to the 
verb, as, "to itnde /-stand," to withdnwf." But the prepo- 
sition more frequently occurs after the verb, and separate 
from it, as, "to cast up," "to fall on." The sense of the 
verb in this case is also materially affected by the prepo- 
sition. 

Q. — Are prepositions ever used as adverbs? 

A. — The prepositions after, before, above, beneath and 
several others, sometimes appear to be adverbs, and may be 
so considered ; as, "They bad their reward soon after?" 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 139 

"He died not long before?" "He dwells above?" but if the 
noun time or place be added, they lose their adverbial form ; 
as, "He died not long before" [that time,'] &c. 

Q. — What distinction between prepositions and conjunc- 
tions as connecting words? 

A. — Prepositions and conjunctions are intimately related, 
both being connecting words. But conjunctions connect 
things of the same kind, and connect them as equals — an 
adjective with an adjective, a noun with a noun, a verb with 
a verb, a sentence with a sentence, &c. A preposition con- 
nects differently. It ties on, as it were, one word to another, 
as a sort of addition. Moreover, the word thus tied on by a 
preposition is always either a noun or a pronoun, while 
almost any part of speech may follow a conjunction. The 
preposition also connects the noun following it, not only to 
another noun, but to other parts of speech, as, a verb, an 
adjective, &c. Examples: 

"I write with a pen." With connects pen (a noun) with 
write (a verb). It connects the act with the instrument, 
and shows the relation between them. 

"The man in the next room." In connects room with 
man, and shows a relation between the two. 

"Taller by an inch." By connects its dependent noun 
inch with taller (an adjective). 

"D}dng of fever." Of connects fever (its object) with 
dying (its subject) which is a participle, and shows the 
relation between them. 

The subject of a preposition is the word which gives it a 
place in the sentence ; it is also called its antecedent. 

RULE X. 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 



140 CARROLL' S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

DEMONSTRATION. 

This rule is based upon the true principles of government. 
But there appears to be one principle connected with the 
preposition which is not generally understood ; and that is, 
that the preposition, and its object, with its descriptive 
words, become an adjunct, or complex complement of its 
subject, and are either governed by it or descriptive of it. 
Thus, in the sentence, "He lives in the greatest seclusion," 
in connects seclusion (its object) with lives (its subject), 
and shows the relation between them ; and the phrase, "in 
the greatest seclusion," is an adjunct to lives; and is the 
complex complement of it; and is an adverbial phrase 
qualifying lives. The true use of the preposition is to bring 
words to coalesce, which refuse of themselves to coalesce ; 
it is, therefore, the connecting link between its subject and 
object, and, according to the true principles of government, 
it and its object are governed by its subject, or they are 
descriptive of it; because, when one word governs another, 
the governing word governs the governed word with all 
of its adjuncts. 

You are aware that a preposition performs a double office 
in a sentence ; that is, it connects words and shows the rela- 
tion between them. I will now show j'ou the use and 
importance of this part of speech as a connective. "When 
corn is ripe, — October, it is gathered — the field — men, who 
go — hill — hill — baskets, — which they put the ears." You 
perceive that in this sentence there is a total want of con- 
nection and meaning ; but let us fill up each vacancy with a 
preposition, and the sense will be clear. "When corn is 
ripe, in October, it is gathered in the field by men, who go 
from hill to hill with baskets, into which they put the ears." 

From this illustration you are convinced, no doubt, that 
our language would be very deficient without prepositions to 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 141 

connect the various words of which it is composed. It 
would, in fact, amount to nothing but nonsense. How 
important, therefore, that we should clearly understand this 
indispensable part of speech. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

John lives within his income. 

Within is a preposition, and connects income and lives, 
and shows the relation between them. 

Income is a common noun, neuter gender, singular num- 
ber and third person, in the objective case, the object of 
the preposition within, and governed by it according to 
Eule X. [Repeat the rule.] 

exercises in syntax continued. 

"Thomas made his fortune by industry." "Susan labors 
with her needle for a livelihood." "Respecting that affair, 
there was a controversy." "In six days God made the 
world and all the things that are in it. He made the sun to 
shine by day, and the moon to give light by night." 

Will you fill up the following sentences with suitable 

prepositions to make sense: "John was the house when 

he was seized a fit." "The busy bee summer pro- 
vides food the approaching winter the prudence 

a rational being." 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

Q. — What is a conjunction? 

A. — A conjunction is a word used to connect words and 
sentences together ; as, "King and Queen." "Life is short 
and art is long." 

The nature and importance of the conjunction are easily 
illustrated. After expressing one thought or sentiment, 
you know we frequently wish to add another, or several 



142 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

others, which are closely connected with it. We generally 
effect this addition by means of the conjunction ; thus, 
"The Georgians cultivate rice and cotton ;" that is, ''They 
cultivate rice add cotton." This sentence is compound, 
and without the use of the conjunction, it would be written 
in two simple sentences; thus, "The Georgians cultivate 
rice. They cultivate cotton." The conjunction, though 
chiefly used to connect sentences, sometimes connects only 
words, in which capacity it is nearly allied to the prep- 
osition ; as, "The sun and {add) the planets constitute the 
solar system." In this, which is a simple sentence, and 
connects two words. 

A few more examples will illustrate the nature, and ex- 
hibit the use of this part of speech so clearly as to enable 
you fully to comprehend it. The following sentences and 
members of sentences, have no relation to each other until 

they are connected by conjunctions: "He labors harder 

more successfully I do. That man is healthy he 

is temperate." By filling up the vacancies in these sen- 
tences with conjunctions, you will see the importance of this 
sort of words ; thus, "He labors harder and more success- 
fully than I do." "That man is healthy because he is tem- 
perate." 

Q. — How are conjunctions divided? 

A. — Conjunctions are divided into two sorts : the Copula- 
tive and Disjunctive. 

I. The conjunction copulative serves to connect and con- 
tinue a sentence by joining on a member which expresses 
an addition, a supposition, or a cause; as, "Two and three 
are five;" "I will go if you will accompany me;" "You 
are happy because you are good." 

In the first of these examples, and joins on a word that 
expresses an addition; in the second, //'connects a member 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 143 

that implies a supposition, or condition; and in the third, 
because connects a member that expresses a cause. 

II. The conjunction disjunctive serves to connect and 
continue a sentence by joining on a member that expresses 
opposition of meaning; as, "They came with her, but they 
went away without her." 

But joins on a member of this sentence which expresses 
not only something added, but also opposition of meaning. 

The principal conjunctions may be known by the follow- 
ing lists, which I hope you have already committed to mem- 
ory. Some words in these lists, are, however, frequently 
used as adverbs, and sometimes as prepositions; but if you 
study well the nature of all the different sorts of words, 
you cannot be at a loss to tell the part of speech of any 
word in the language. 

LIST OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 

Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, 
therefore, wherefore, provided, besides. 

Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, through, al- 
though, unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding, never- 
theless, except, whether, whereas, as well as. 

Q. — What conjunctions have correspondent conjunctions? 

A. — Some conjunctions have correspondent conjunctions 
belonging to them, either expressed or understood, so that 
in the subsequent member of the sentence the latter answers 
to the former ; as, 

1. Though — yet or nevertheless; as "Though he was rich, 
yet for our sakes he became poor ; though powerful, he was 
meek." 

2. Whether — or ; as, " Whether he will go, or not, I cannot 
tell." It is improper to say, "Whether he will go or no." 

3. Either — or; as, "I will either send it, or bring it my- 
self." 



144 Carroll's elementaky grammar. 

4. Neither — nor; as, "Neither thou nor I can compre- 
hend." 

5. As — as; expressing a comparison of equality ; as, 
"She is as amiable as her sister, and as much respected." 

6. As — so; expressing a comparison of equality ; as, "As 
the stars, so shall thy seed be." 

7. As — so; expressing a comparison of quality; as, "As 
the one dieth, so dieth the other ;" "As he reads, so they 
read." 

8. So — as; with a verb expressing a comparison of qual- 
ity; as, "To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee in the 
sanctuary." 

9. So — as; with a negative and an adjective expressing a 
comparison of quantity; as, "Pompey was not so great a 
general as Caesar, nor as great a man." 

10. So — that; expressing a consequence; as, "He was 
so fatigued, that he could scarcely move;" "She became so 
vain, that every one disliked her." 

Some conjunctions are used to connect simple sentences 
only, and form them into compound sentences; such as, fur- 
ther , again, besides, &c. Others are employed to connect 
simple members only, so as to make them compound mem- 
bers; such as, than, lest, unless, that, so that, if, though, yet, 
because, &c. But, and, therefore, or, nor, for, &c, connect 
either whole sentences, or simple members. 

Q. — What other words besides conjunctions connect sen- 
tences? 

A. — Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions connect 
sentences; as, "Blessed is the man icho feareth the Lord, 
and keepeth his commandments." 

Conjunctions very often unite sentences when they ap- 
pear to unite only words, as in the following sentences: 
"Duty and interest forbid vicious indulgences." "Wisdom 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 145 

or folly governs us." Each of these forms of expression 
contains two sentences, namely; the first, "Duty forbids 
vicious indulgences;" "Interest forbids vicious indul- 
gences;" the second, "Wisdom governs us;" or, "Folly 
governs us." 

RULE XI. 

Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same mood and 
tense, and nouns and pronouns of the same case. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"John assists his father and mother." 

And is a conjunction, a word used to connect words and 
sentences ; copulative — it connects father and mother, in 
the same case, according to Rule XI. (Repeat the rule. ) 

Mother is a noun — it is a name ; common — it is a general 
name ; feminine gender — it is the name of a female ; sin- 
gular number — it means but one ; third person — it is spoken 
of; and it is one of the objects of assists, and governed by 
it, according to Rule VIII. (Repeat the rule.) 

"William writes and ciphers." 

And is a conjunction, a word used to connect words and 
sentences ; copulative — it connects writes and ciphers, in the 
same mood and tense, according to Rule XI. (Repeat the 
rule.) 

Ciphers is a regular active intransitive verb, from 
the verb to cipher. Present, cipher ; imperfect, ciphered ; 
perfect participle, ciphered. 1st. per. I cipher ; 2nd. per. 
You cipher ; 3rd. per. He or William ciphers ; made in the 
indicative mood, present tense, singular number and third 
person, and agrees with its nominative, William (under- 
stood'), according to Rule VII, and is connected to writes by 
the conjunction and, according to Rule XI. 



146 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

exercises in syntax continued. 

"You may read this sentence first and then parse it." 
"John rises early in the morning and pursues his studies." 
"Though he is lively, yet he is not too volatile." "If we 
contend about trifles and violently maintain our opinions, 
we shall gain but few friends." "I will reward him and 
them at some future time." "Reproof either hardens or 
softens its object." "John ciphers rapidly and reads cor- 
rectly." "If he has promised he should act accordingly." 
"He denied that he circulated the report." 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Will you compose a sentence containing the conjunction 
iff One containing and? As many sentences as there ace 
conjunctions which follow, each sentence containing one? 
Although, unless, for, became, therefore, or, neither, nor. 

Will you compose a sentence about Jackson? One about 
Madison? One about Monroe? One about Webster? One 
about Clay? One about Washington? 

INTERJECTIONS. 

Q. — What are interjections? 

A. — Interjections are words thrown in between the parts 
of sentences, to express the passions or sudden feelings of 
the speaker; as, "Alas! I fear for life;" "Oh, death! 
where is thy sting?" 

Interjections are not 90 much the signs of thought as of 
feeling. Almost any word may be used as an interjection ; 
but when so employed, it is not the representative of a dis- 
tinct idea. A word which denotes a distinct conception of 
the mind, must necessarily belong to some other part of 
speech. They who wish to speak often, or rather, to make 
noises, when they have no useful information to communi- 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 147 

cate, are apt to use words very freely in this way, such as 
the following expressions: La! La me! My! O my! 
dear! Dear me! Surprising ! Astonishing! and the like. 

Interjections not included in the following list, are gen- 
erally known by their taking an exclamation point after 
them. 

A list of the principal interjections: 

1. Of earnestness or grief '; as, O! oh! ah! alas! 

2. Of contempt; as, pish! tush! 

3. Ofivonder; as, heigh! really! strange! 

4. Of calling; as, hem! ho! halloo! 

5. Of disgust or aversion; as, foh! fy ! fudge! away! 

6. Of attention; as, lo! behold! hark! 

7. Of requesting silence; as, hush! hist! 

8. Of salutation; as, welcome? hail! all hail! 

We frequently meet with what some call an interjective 
phrase; such, as, "Ungrateful wretch!" "Impudence of 
hope!" "Folly in the extreme!" "What ingratitude!" 
"Away with him!" 

We do not say, "Ah, I!" "Oh, I!" but "Ah, me!" 
"Oh, me!" using the objective case after the interjection. 
The pronoun here spoken of, you perceive, is of the first 
person ; hence, 

Note 10. Pronouns of the first person are put in the ob- 
jective case, after the interjections O ! oh ! ah ! &c. 

We say, "O thou persecutor !" "Oh ye hypocrites!" "O 
thou who dwellest!" &c. Hence, 

Note 11. The interjections O! oh! and ah! require the 
nominative case of pronouns in the second person, after 
them. 

As the interjection is the least important part of speech 
in the English language, it will require but little attention. 
You may, however, make yourself well acquainted with 



148 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

what lias been said respecting it, and then parse the follow- 
ing: 

EXERCISES* IN SYNTAX. 

"Ah, me ! I must perish !" 

Ah is an interjection, a word used to express some pas- 
sion or emotion of the speaker. 

Me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular, 
objective case, following the interjection ah, according to 
Note 10. 

"O, thou who hearest prayer!" 

Thou is a personal pronoun, of the second person, sin- 
gular, and in the nominative case, after the interjection 0, 
according to Note 1 1 . 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

"0,'thou! Who hast murdered thy friend!" "Ah, me! 
must I endure all this?" "Oh! I must go and see my 
dear father before he dies." "Oh! happy us, surrounded 
with so many blessings." "Ah! unhappy thou, who art 
deaf to the calls of duty and honor." "We eagerly pursue 
pleasure, but alas! we often mistake the road to its enjoy- 
ment." 

AGREEMENT OF NOUNS. 

Q. — What are nouns in apposition? 

A. — Apposition, in grammar, signifies the putting of two 
nouns in the same case. 

"By apposition nouns in case agree, 
Though different in person they may be." 

When I say, "John, the mechanic, has come," I am 
speaking of only one person ; the two nouns, John and 
mechanic, both meaning or referring to the same person ; 
consequently the}'- are put, by apposition, in the same case; 
hence, 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 149 

RULE XV. 

When two or more nouns or pronouns, in the same sen- 
tence, signify the same person or thing, they are put, by 
apposition, in the same case; as, "Cicero, the great orator, 
philosopher, and statesman of Rome, was murdered by 
Antony." 

You perceive that Cicero, in the preceding example, is 
merely the proper name of a man ; but when I give him the 
three additional appellations, and call him a great vrator, 
philosopher and statesman, you understand what kind of a 
man he was ; that is, by giving him these three additional 
names, his character and abilities as a man are more fully 
made known. Surely, you cannot be at a loss to know that 
these four nouns must be in the same case, for they are all 
names given to the same person; therefore, if Cicero was 
murdered, the orator was murdered, and the philosopher was 
murdered, and the statesman was murdered, because they 
all mean one and the same person. 

Nouns and pronouns, in the objective case, are frequently 
in apposition; as, "He struck Charles, the student." Now, 
it is obvious that, when he struck Charles, he struck the 
student, because Charles was the student, and the student was 
Charles; therefore, the noun student is in the objective case, 
governed by struck; according to Rule VIII, and put, by 
apposition, with Charles, according to Rule XV. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"Webster, the statesman, has left us." 

Statesman is a common noun, masculine gender, singular 
number, and third person ; in the nominative case, and put 
in apposition with Webster, according to Rule XV. 



150 cakroll's elementary grammar. 

exercises in syntax continued. 

"David, the thief, was apprehended." "Johnson, the 
bookseller, has failed in business." "I consulted Williams, 
the lawyer." "I visit Thompson, the professor, often." 

Remark. When one noun describes or qualifies another, 
the one so qualifying becomes an adjective in sense, and 
may be so considered in parsing. Accordingly, Belmont, in 
the phrase '■'■Belmont House" is an adjective belonging to 
house, according to Rule IV. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

"The Marlborough Hotel is situated in Washington 
street." "The firm of Messrs. Williams & Sons has failed." 
"John Dobson, the butcher, was in town yesterday." 
"John Johnson, the baker, has broken his leg." 

Remark 2. When the nouns which refer to the same per- 
son or thing are separated by verbs, as, "Webster is a 
statesman," it is customary to apply one or more of the fol- 
lowing rules : 

1. Any verb may have the same case after it as before 
it, when both words refer to the same thing. 

2. The verb to be, through all its variations, has the 
same case after it as that which next precedes it. 

3. Passive verbs of naming, judging, &c, have the same 
case after them as before them. 

4. Neuter verbs have the same case after them as before 
them. 

Remark. — For a full explanation of the true nature of 
nouns in apposition, see Carroll's Large Grammar, page 
145, &c. 

NOUNS USED INDEPENDENTLY. 

Q. — When are nouns said to be in the nominative case 
independent? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 151 

A. — To address signifies to speak to ; as, "James, your 
father has come." The name of the person addressed must 
always be of the second person ; and a noun in this situa- 
tion, when it has no verb to agree with it, and is wholly dis- 
connected with the rest of the sentence, is said to be in the 
nominative case independent. Hence, 

RULE XVI. 

When an address is made, the name of the person or thing 
addressed is in the nominative case independent. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"John, will you assist me?" 

John is a proper noun, masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, and third person, and nominative case independent, 
according to Rule XVI. (Repeat the rule.) 

The nominative case independent is also used in mere ex- 
clamations ; as, "O, the times! O, the manners!" also, 
when the attention is directed to an object before an af- 
firmation is made of it; as, "The Pilgrim fathers, where are 
they?" 

EXERCISES in syntax continued. 

"My lords, the time has come when we must take some 
decisive measures." "Boys, attend to your lessons." "In 
making this appeal to you, my fellow citizens, I rely en- 
tirely on your candor." "Did you speak to me, girls?" 

"Those evening bells, those evening bells! 
How many a tale their music tells, 
Of youth and home, and that sweet time 
When last I heard their soothing chime." — T. Moore. 

"The warlike of the isles ; 

The men of field and wave ! 
Are not the rocks their funeral pile, 

The seas and shores their grave?" — Hemans. 



152 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

NOUNS IN THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 

Q. — When is a noun in the nominative case absolute? 

A. — In the phrase, "The sun being risen, we set sail," the 
clause of the sentence, namely, "The sun being risen," has 
nothing to do with the remainder ; the noun and participle 
may, therefore, when taken together, be said to be in the nom- 
inative case independent ; but, as we have already one case 
of this nature, we will, for the sake of making a distinction, 
call this (the noun joined with a participle) the nominative 
case absolute. Hence, 

RULE XVII. 

A noun or pronoun before a participle, and independent 
of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case abso- 
lute ; as, "Shame being lost, all virtue is lost;" that is, 
when shame is lost. 

Being and having been are sometimes omitted when the 
nominative is absolute ; as, 

"Her icheel at rest, the matron thrills no more 
With treasured tales of legendary lore." — Rogers. 

"He destroyed, 
Or icon, to what may work his utter loss; 
All this will follow soon." 

Being is omitted after ivheel, and having been before de- 
stroyed and won. 

The objective case should not be used for the nominative 
absolute. Thus, we should say, he destroyed; not him de- 
stroyed. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"The sun being risen, we departed." "The soldiers re- 
treating,, victory was lost." "Egypt being conquered, 
Alexander returned to Syria." "Wellington having returned 
to England, tranquility was restored to France." "Bona- 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 153 

parte being conquered, the king was restored." "The con- 
ditions being observed, the bargain was a mutual benefit." 

SENTENCES TO BE CORRECTED AND PARSED. 

"Him only excepted, who was a murderer." "Him be- 
ing destroyed, the remaining robbers made their escape." 
"Her being dismissed, the rest of the scholars behaved 
well." "But them being absent, we cannot come to a de- 
termination." 

THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Note 12. A verb in the infinitive mood is sometimes 
placed independently ; as, "To be fra7ik, I own I have in- 
jured you. 

Note 13. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is 
frequently put as the nominative case to a verb of the third 
person singular ; as, u To play is pleasant ;" "Thou shall 
not Mil, is required of all men." 

Remark. — The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is 
frequently the object of a transitive verb ; as, "Boys love to 
play; "Children do not consider how much has been done for 
them by their parents." (See Rule XII.) 

Note 14. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, 
may have an adjective or participle agreeing with it, when 
there is no noun, either expressed or understood, to which 
the adjective may belong ; as, "To see the sun is pleasant ;" 
"Defraud not thy neighbor is binding on all." 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"To be frank, I own I have injured you." 

To be frank is a verb, in the infinitive mood, present 
tense, singular number, and nominative case independent, 
according to Note 12. 



154 caeroll's elementary grammar. 

"Thou shalt not kill, is required of all men." 

Thoushalt not kill is a part of a sentence, and is nomina- 
tive case to is required, according to Note 13 and also ac- 
cording to Rule VI. 

7s required is a regular passive verb, &c, and agrees with 
its nominative, thou shalt not kill, according to Rule VII. 

"To see the sun is pleasant." 

Pleasant is an adjective, &c, and agrees with "to seethe 
sun," according to Note 14. 

In those sentences every word should first be parsed sep- 
arately ; as, to is a preposition, sign of the infinitive mood ; 
see is a principal verb ; to see is an irregular, active transi- 
tive verb, in the infinitive mood, present tense, and has no 
regard to number or person ; the is the definite article, and 
belongs to sun, according to Rule III. Sun is a proper 
noun, &c, and governed by the verb to see, according to 
Rule VIII. To see the sun is a part of a sentence, and is 
nominative case to the verb is, according to Note 13. Is is 
an irregular neuter verb, &c, and agrees with its nomina 
tive, to see the sun, according to Rule VII. 
sentences to be written. 

Will you compose one or more sentences having an infin- 
itive governed by a participle? One using an infinitive 
after a noun? One describing the manner of playing ball? 
One on the duty of children to mind their parents? One, 
or more, on industty? One on the business you intend to 
pursue for life ? 

SINGULAR NOUNS CONNECTED BY— AND. 

In the phrase, "John and James are here," the sense is, 
that "John and James are both here." Two persons are 
therefore spoken of, which renders it necessary to use the 
plural verb are, to agree with two nouns which, individually, 
are singular. Hence, 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 155 

RULE XVIII. 

Two or more nouns or pronouns, of the singular number, 
connected together by and, either expressed or understood, 
must have verbs, nouns and pronouns agreeing with them in 
the plural number ; as, "Socrates and Plato were wise ; they 
were eminent philosophers.'" 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"William and James run." "Mary and Harriet study, 
and they will therefore excel." "You and I are in fault." 
"John and Thomas say they intend to study Latin." 

Remark. — William is one of the nominatives to the verb 
run. James is in the nominative case to the verb run, and 
is connected with the noun William, by Rule XL Bun 
agrees with William and James by Rule XVIII. 

DEMONSTRATION OF RULE XVTII. 

This rule is partly of necessity, and partly of brevity. It 
is of necessity when the attribute belongs to all of the nouns 
taken conjointly, but will not agree with each of them taken 
separately; as, "John, James, and Joseph have built the 
house." Here the verb agrees with all the nouns taken 
conjointly, but will not agree with each of them taken sepa- 
rately, for we cannot say that "John has built the house," 
for then James and Joseph could have no part in the build- 
ing of it, and consequently here the verb must be in the 
plural number. But in the sentence, "John, James, and 
Joseph run," the attribute belongs to all taken conjointly, 
and also to each noun taken separately, for we can say 
"John runs," "James runs," and "Joseph runs," without 
violating any other rule of grammar ; but for the sake of 
brevity we use the verb in the plural number, and so retain 
the rule as it is with its appendages and exceptions. 



156 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

Exception 1. When and connects two or more nouns in 
the singular, which refer to the same person or thing, the 
verb must be singular; as, "Pliny, the philosopher and 
naturalist, has greatly enriched science." 

Exception 2. When two or more nouns in the singular, 
connected by and, have each or every joined with them, the 
verb must be in the singular number; as, "Every person, 
every house, and every blade of grass was destroyed." 

"Every man, and every woman, and every child were 
taken," is incorrect. Were should be changed for was, 
because reference is had to each person, individually con- 
sidered, which in respect to the verb, is the same in effect 
as if one person only was spoken of. 

Note 15. Every is sometimes associated with a plural 
noun, in which case the verb must be singular; as, "Every 
hundred years constitutes a century." 

The reason of this is, that "every hundred years," signi- 
fies a single period of time, and is in realit}^ singular. 

Note 16. A verb in the plural will agree with a collect- 
ive noun in the singular, when a part only of the individuals 
are meant; as, "The council were divided in their senti- 
ments." But when the noun expresses the idea of unity, 
the verb should be singular; as, "The council was composed 
wholly of farmers." 

Remark. In the first of the foregoing examples, we use 
the plural verb were divided, because we refer to the indi- 
viduals composing the council ; but if no allusion of this 
sort had been made, and we had spoken of it as one entire 
body, we should have used the singular verb, according 
to the common rule ; as, "The council was composed wholly 
of farmers." 

We apply to council, in the first example, Note 16 ; to 
were divided the same note ; and to council audivas composed 
in the second example, Rules VI and VII. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 157 

When two or more rules or notes apply to the same words, 
it will be sufficient to apply only one of them in parsing. 

TWO NEGATIVES IN THE SAME SENTENCE. 

Negative means denying, and affirmative, asserting or de- 
claring positively. A sentence in which something is denied 
is a negative one, and a sentence in which something is af- 
firmed or positively asserted, is an affirmative one. ' 'Vice de- 
grades us," is an affirmative sentence, and "Labor does not 
injure us," is a negative one. No, not, notliing, none at all, 
by no means, in no wise, neither, none, &c, are negative 
terms. 

The phrase, "I have nothing," has one negative, and 
means, "I have not any thing." The phrase, "I have not 
nothing," cannot mean the same as "I have nothing," but 
must mean, on the contrary, "I have something. "This last 
expression, you perceive, is an affirmative sentence, and 
signifies the same as, "I have not nothing." Two neg- 
atives, therefore, are equal to an affirmative, Hence, 

EULE XIX. 

Two negatives in the same sentence are equivalent to an 
affirmative, as "Such things are not rmcommon;" that is, 
they are common. 

Note. — When one of the two negatives employed is 
joined to another word, it forms a pleasing and delicate 
variety of expression ; as, "His language, though inellegant 
is not imgrammatical ;" that is it is grammatical. 

But, as two negatives, by destroying each other, are 
equivalent to an affirmative, they should not be used when 
we wish to convey a negative meaning. The following sen- 
tence is therefore inaccurate ; "I cannot by no means allow 
him what his argument must prove." It should be "I can- 
not by any means," &c, or, "I can by no means." 



158 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

SENTENCES TO BE CORRECTED AND PARSED. 

' 'He spends all the day in idleness, and I cannot prevail on 
him to do nothing." "He cannot get no employment in 
town." "I cannot by no means consent." "I shall not take 
no interest in the affair." "There cannot be nothing more 
insignificant than vanity." "He is so indolent that he will 
not do nothing," "I did not say nothing." "He cannot 
do nothing acceptable to John." 

Remark. — For no in the above examples read any, and 
for nothing read any thing in accordance with Rile XIX. 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Will you compose one sentence describing the business of 
% teacher? One, the business of a doctor? One, the busi- 
ness of a lawyer? One, of a dentist? One, of a surgeon? 
One, of a farmer? One, of ^blacksmith? One, of a mer- 
chant? One, of a miller? One, of an apothecary? One of 
a legislator. 

VERBS GOVERNING TWO OBJECTIVE CASES. 

When I say "He taught me grammar," I mean, "He 
taught grammar to me." Grammar, then, is the object of 
the verb, and me is governed by the preposition to under- 
stood. In the first example we have two objective cases 
after the verb taught; and since there are many instances 
like the preceding, in which transitive verbs are followed by 
two objective cases — hence the following : 

RULE XX. 

Two objective cases, the one of a person and the other of 
a thing, may follow transitive verbs, of asking, teaching. 
giving, &c. ; a preposition being understood, as, "He taught 
me grammar. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 159 

Remark. — In the foregoing example, me and grammar are 
both governed by taught, according to Rule XX. 

N. B. — The preposition is not necessary. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"William asked me some questions." "My instructor 
gave me a valuable book for my attention to study." 
"They allowed him his seat in Congress." "John gave me 
a detailed account of the whole transaction." "The French 
denied him the privilege of an American citizen." "She 
forbade him the presence of the emperor." 

DEMONSTRATION OF RULE XX. . 

Rule. — Two objective cases, one of a person and the 
other of a thing, may follow transitive verbs, of asking, 
teaching, giving, naming, calling, electing, &c. 

The reason of this rule is because such verbs as teach in- 
troduce two different ideas more than they express, and 
require two nouns or words to express those ideas; one is 
called the mediate or first object of the verb, and the other 
the immediate or second object of the verb ; or the direct 
and indirect objects of the verb. Now, when one of these 
objective cases is said to be governed by a preposition, it 
cannot deprive the verb of the government of its two cases. 
For (as has been explained under Rule X), the preposition 
and its object are the complex complement of its subject, 
and its subject in this case must be the object of the verb, 
and governed by it ; and as the verb governs its object, so 
it also governs all of the appendages or adjuncts of its ob- 
ject. Again, in the sentence "He taught me grammar," 
me is the mediate or principal object of the verb, and gram- 
mar is the immediate or indirect object of the same verb, 
and ought not to be placed as its first object; as, "He 



160 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

taught grammar to me." Now, let us examine this con- 
struction ; the verb teach signifies to instruct, but grammar 
is an unthinking science and not capable of receiving in- 
struction, nor of in any manner being affected by the act 
called teach. And although such expressions are very com- 
mon, they will not stand the test of reason and criticism. 
Again, when changing such sentences from the active to the 
passive voice, the nominative or subject of the verb in the 
active voice should always become the object Of a preposi- 
tion in the passive voice, and the direct or first object of the 
verb in the active voice should be made the subject of the 
verb in the passive voice, and its indirect or second object, 
will rermvin as its object; as, "I was taught grammar by 
him." If we make grammar the nominative case, or sub- 
ject of the verb, in the passive voice, and say, "Grammar 
was taught by him to me," the same objection will arise that 
does in making grammar the first object of the verb in the 
active voice. 

N. B. — This demonstration will also apply to Rule XXI. 
RULE XXI. 

An objective case rnay follow passive verbs of asking, 
giving, teaching, &c. ; as, "I was taught grammar." 

The natural construction of the passive voice requires 
the object of the active verb to become the nominative or 
subject of the passive verb ; as, "He taught me grammar ;" 
"I was taught grammar by him." Thus, you perceive 
that in changing a sentence from the active to the passive 
voice, there is a transposition of subject and object. 

In parsing "I was taught grammar," apply to J, Rule 
VI ; to ivas taught, Rule VII ; and to grammar, Rule XXI. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 161 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"John taught me music." "I was asked a question." 
"He was allowed his seat in Congress." "I was taught 
music by John." "I was offered a place in a store." "Pu- 
pils are taught reading in almost every school." 

RULE XXII. 

Home, and nouns signifying which way, how far, how 
long, or time when, &c, are in the objective case ; a prepo- 
sition being understood. 

When I say, "He came home last May," the sense is, 
when fully expressed, "He came to his home in last May." 
"John continued four years at the university;" that is 
during four years." "The horse ran a mile ;" that is, "over 
the space of a mile." "John went that way ;" that is, "over 
that way." The foregoing rule is based on these facts. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"He came home last May." "John continued four years 
at the university." "John went home once a month." 
"Charles studies six hours everyday." "Susan rides out 
every day." "William sleeps comfortably all night." "John 
rode that way." "James lived six years at Boston, twelve 
years at Dedham." 

Note 17. — After the words like and unlike, the preposi- 
tion to or unto is frequently understood ; as, "He is like his 
father;" that is, "like to his fateer." "She is unlike her 
sister;" that is, "unlike to her sister." 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"He is like his brother," "William, unlike his father, fal- 
sified his word." "She is unlike any other mortal." "John 
behaves like a man in a violent rage." 



162 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

Note 18. — Nouns signifying duration, extension, quan- 
tity, quality or valuation, are in the objective case, without 
any governing word. The following are examples : 

"The Atlantic ocean is three thousand miles wide." "The 
cart weighs fifteen hundred pounds." The wall which sep- 
arates China from Tartary, commonly called the 'great 
Chinese wall,' is fifteen hundred miles long, and from twenty 
to thirty feet in height." "William's knife is worth ten 
pence, or twenty cents." "For that article which is richly 
worth a dollar, we cannot always get fifty cents." "The 
chasm is fifty feet broad and sixty feet deep." 

Note 19. — the conjunction as, after such, many and same, 
is generally considered a relative pronoun ; as in the follow- 
ing examples: 

"He receives into his school as many scholars as apply." 
"Our instructor punishes severely all such as disobey his 
commands." "He took such books as pleased him." "He 
exhibited the same course of conduct as was once before ex- 
hibited on the same occasion." 

Remark. — As is a conjunction, used as a relative pro- 
noun, according to Note 19. Has for its antecedent the 
noun scholars, with which it agrees in gender, number and 
person, according to Rule V. It is, therefore, common 
gender, plural number and third person, and is nominative 
case to the verb apply, according to the first part of Rule 
XXIY. 

Note 20. — The conjunction than, seems to have the force 
of a preposition before the relative whom, in a sentence 
where a comparison is made : as follows: 

"Which, when Beelzebub perceived, than whom, Satan 
excepted, none higher sat." "Alfred, than whom, Solo- 
mon excepted, a wiser king never reigned, was one of the 
earliest English kings." 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 163 

Remark. — Wlwm is governed by the conjunction than, 
used as a preposition, according to Note 20. Satan is 
nominative case absolute, according to Rule XVII, and ex- 
cepted is the perfect participle of the verb to except, and re- 
fers to Satan, according to Rule XIII. It is somewhat re- 
markable that, if, in the last two examples, the personal 
pronoun lie was substituted for whom, it would be in the 
nominative case ; as, "A wiser king never reigned than he;" 
that is, "than he was." 

WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Many words belong to different classes ; thus, iron may 
be either a noun, or a verb, or an adjective; as, '■'■Iron is a 
hard metal;" "To iron clothes ;" "An iron rod." 

Some of the words commonly employed as different parts 
of speech are here mentioned. 

As is a relative pronoun, when it follows many, such or 
same; as, "Let such as hear take heed." 

As is an adverb, when it is joined to an adverb or adjec- 
tive in the sense of so; as, "He does as well as he can." 

As is a conjunction in all cases except when it is an adverb 
or relative ; as, "He did as I directed him." 

Before, after, till, and until are prepositions when 
followed by a noun or a pronoun in the objective case ; as, 
"Come before dinner." "Come after dinner." "Wait till 
midnight." "Wait until your turn." 

Before, after, till, and until are adverbs when not fol- 
lowed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case; as, 
"Come before I have dined." "Come after I have dined." 
"Wait till I have dined." "Wait until I have dined." 

Both is an adjective pronoun when it means "the two;" 
as, "Both the men are guilty." 

Both is a conjunction when it is followed by and ; as, 
"We assisted him, both for his sake and our own." 



164 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

But is a preposition when it means except; as, "All but 
(except) John came." 

But is an adverb when it has the sense of only; as, "This 
is but (only) doing our duty." 

But is a conjunction in all cases when it is neither an ad- 
verb nor a preposition; as, "He called, but I refused to 
go." 

Either is a distributive adjective pronoun when it means 
one of the two;" as, "Either of the boys may do it." 

Either is a conjunction, when it corresponds to or; as, 
"Either the one or the other." 

Neither is a distributive adjective pronoun when it means 
not one of the two; as, "Neither of the boys did it." 

Neither is a conjunction in all other cases. 

For is a conjunction when it means the same as because, 
and is used in giving a reason ; as, "I obey him for he is 
my father ;" that is, because he is my father. 

For is a preposition in all other cases. 

Much is a noun when it stands for quantity; as, "Where 
much is given much will be required." 

Much is an adjective when it is joined to a noun; as, 
"Much labor fatigues us." 

Much is an adverb when it qualifies the same parts of 
speech that the adverb does; as, "Thou art much mightier 
than I." 

More is a noun when it implies quantity; as, "The more 
we have, the more we want." 

More and most are adjectives when they qualify a noun ; 
as, "The more joy I have, the more sorrow I expect." 
"Most men are mistaken in their pursuit of happiness." 

More and most are adverbs when used in comparison ; as, 
"This boy is more obedient than that;" "The soil of Cuba 
is most fertile." 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 165 

Notwithstanding is & preposition when followed by a noun 
or a pronoun in the objective case; as, '■'•Notwithstanding 
his merit." 

Notwithstanding is a conjunction in all other cases ; as, 
"He is respected notwithstandmg he is poor." 

Since is a conjunction when it means for the reason that, 
or, because; as, " Since it is your wish, I will certainly do 
it." 

Since is a 'preposition when placed before a noun denoting 
a period of time ; as, "I have had no food since Monday." 

Since is an adverb in all other cases. 

That is a relative pronoun when who, whom, or which, 
may be used in its place; as, "He is the wisest man that 
lives in our village." 

That is a demonstrative adjective pronoun when it is joined 
with a noun to point it out ; as, "-That man is intelligent." 

That is a conjunction in all other cases. 

The is an article when placed before a noun; as, '■'■The 
man." 

The is an adverb when it is placed before an adjective or 
an adverb ; as, " The wiser he is, the better he is." In such 
cases the two words may be called an adverbial phrase. 

Then is a conjunction when it means in that case, or there- 
fore; as, "If all this be so, then I am right." "If he has 
commanded it, then I must obey." 

Then is an adverb when it refers to time; as, "Did you 
hear it thunder then?" 

What is a compound pronoun when that which or those 
which can be used in its stead ; as, "Eat what is set before 
you ;" that is, "Eat thatiohich is set before you." 

What is an interrogative relative pronoun when used in 
asking questions ; as, "What do you want?" 



166 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

What is an adjective pronoun when joined with a noun, 
but not asking a question; as, "What wonders he per- 
formed." 

What is a compound adjective pronoun when joined with 
nouns, and has the sense of two or more words; as, "In 
what manner he succeeded, is unknown." 

What is an interjection when uttered as a mere exclama- 
tion or to express wonder ; as, " What ! abuse your mother ! ' ' 
"WJiat! take my money!" 

While is a noun when it means a portion of time ; as, 
"Let us sing a while." 

While is a verb when it means to pass or spend time ; as, 
"They managed to while away the hours very pleasantly." 

While is an adverb when it means "during the time that;" 
as, "The act was done ivhile I was absent." 

Yet is a conjunction when it follows though or any other 
corresponding conjunction ; as, "Though he reproves me, 
yet I esteem hi in." 

Yet is an adverb when it means "up to a certain time," 
or "over and above;" as, "Has the boy come yet?" "I will 
give you yet one more reason." 

If you understand the definitions of the parts of speech, 
you will have no difficulty in ascertaining to which part of 
speech any word belongs. You should therefore become 
practically and thoroughly acquainted with the applications 
of those definitions, and also the foregoing rules and notes. 

Remark. — For Idioms, Anomalies and Intricacies, see 
Carroll's Large Grammar, page 159, &c, and for Contrac- 
tions, Omissions, Inverted or Transposed Sentences, see 
page 162, &c. 



SYNTAX. 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

Remarks. — Aware that there is, in the public mind, a 
strong and merited predilection for the doctrines contained 
in Mr. Murray's grammar, I have thought proper, not merely 
from motives of policy, but from choice, to select my prin- 
ciples chiefly from that work, and, moreover to adopt, as far 
as consistent with my own views, the language of that 
eminent philologist. 

To demonstrate the utility and enforce the necessity of 
exercising the learner in correcting false syntax, I need no 
other argument than the interesting and undeniable fact, that 
Mr. Murray's labors, in this department, have effected a 
complete revolution in the English language, in point of 
verbal accuracy. Who does not know, that the best writers 
of this day are not guilty of one grammatical inaccuracy, 
when those authors who wrote before Mr. Murray flourished, 
are guilty of five? And what has produced this important 
change for the better? Ask the hundreds of thousands who 
have studied Mr. Murray's exercises in false syntax. 

ANALYSIS. 

Analysis, in Grammar, treats of the separation of 
a sentence into the parts which compose it. 

The analysis of sentences is a matter of logic rather than of 
grammar. Some attention to analysis, however, even in 
elementary studies, is important. By means of it, the syn- 
tactical relations of words are more clearly apprehended. It 
helps, also, to cultivate the logical faculty, which is at the 
basis of all sound knowledge. 

What does analysis treat of? What is gained by its study? 
167 



168 carkoll's elementary grammar. 

Analysis may be divided into three parts : I. Parts of a 
sentence. II. Kinds of sentences. III. Explanation of 
terms. 

I.— PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

A Sentence is an assemblage of words, forming com- 
plete sense ; as, "Life is short." 

A sentence may consist of a single word ; as, "Go." 
Every sentence consists of two parts : the subject and the 

PREDICATE. 

The subject is that of which something is affirmed ; as, 
"Snoiv is white." '■'■John reads." 

The predicate is that which is affirmed or asserted of the 
subject ; as, "Snow is ivhite." "John reads. " It includes 
both the verb and its object. 

There cannot be a sentence without a subject, expressed 
or understood. 

The predicate properly consists of two parts : the attri- 
bute affirmed of the subject, and the copula by which the 
affirmation is made. Thus, in the first example, is white is 
the predicate, of which white is the attribute, and is the 
copula. 

The attribute and copula are often expressed by one 
word, which in that case must always be a verb, as in the 
second example ; "John reads." — John is reading. 

The copula is the verb to be, or some variation of it, and 
is either a visible or latent part of every verb and proposition. 

The predicate may be a noun or pronoun, an adjective, a 
preposition ivith its case, or an adverb; also an infinitive or 
clause of a sentence as an attribute, together with the copula 
by which it is connected with, and affirmed of, the subject ; 
or it may be a verb which includes in itself both attribute 
aud copula. (See grammatical aiul logical predicate.) 

How is it divided? What is a sentence? What is the subject? 
The predicate? The copula? The attribute? 



SYNTAX. 169 



SUBJECT. 



1. The Subject is either grammatical or logical. 

The grammatical subject is simply the noun or pronoun 
which is nominative to the verb. The logical subject con- 
sists of the grammatical subject with its various modifications. 

Thus, "The consciousness of a well spent life is pleas- 
ant." Here consciousness is the grammatical, and the con- 
sciousness of a well spent life the logical subject. 

If the grammatical subject is not modified, it is the same 
as the logical subject. Thus, in the sentence, "John 
reads," John is both the grammatical and the logical subject. 

2. The subject is also either simple or compound. 

A simple subject is a single noun, or word standing for 
a noun, either alone or variously modified; as, '•''Life is 
short ;" '•''The longest life of man is short." 

A compound subject consists of two or more simple sub- 
jects to which one predicate belongs; as, "The moon and 
stars shone?" Two and three make five ;" '■'■This most excel- 
lent man and that consummate villain, were born in London. " 

MODIFIED SUBJECTS. 

Words are said to modify or limit others, when they serve 
to explain, describe, enlarge, restrict or otherwise qualify 
their meaning. 

A grammatical subject may be modified or limited in 
different ways. 

1. By a noun in the same case annexed to it for the sake of 
explanation or description ; as, "John, the carpenter, came." 

2. By a noun or pronoun in the possessive case ; as, 
"iHft'ftow's writings are sublime." '•'•My sister is here." 

How many kinds of subjects? What is the grammatical sub- 
ject? The logical? What is a simple subject? A compound? 
When are words said to modify or limit others? What is the first 
way in which a grammatical subject may be modified ? The second? 



170 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

3. By an adjunct; as, "The love of learning is commend- 
able." 

4. By an article, adjective or participle; as, "7%e man 
has arrived ; '■'•Good men are few ;" "Brothers divided are 
a sad sight;" "He, shouting, made the onset." 

5. By a relative clause ; as, "The boy tvho studies will im- 
prove." 

6. By an infinitive; as, "A desire to learn is praise- 
worthy." 

7. By an entire clause ; as, "Lessons ivhich are easy are 
apt to be neglected ;" "A belief that God is merciful affords 
consolation." 

"WAYS IX WHICH THE ADJUNCTS OF THE SUBJECT ARE MODIFIED 
BY OTHER ADJUNCTS. 

Adjuncts of the subject may themselves be modified by 
other words, as follows: 

1. A noun used as an adjunct of the subject may be mod- 
ified in all respects as the principal noun; as, "The carpen- 
ter tvho built the house has departed." 

2. An adjective modifying a noun may itself be modified — 
(1.) By an adjunct; as, "A pen is useful for writing." 

(2.) By an adverb; as, "That very large tree has fallen." 
(3.) By an infinitive; as, "He is ready to go." 

3. An adverb used to modify an adjunct adjective, may 
itself be modified — 

(1.) By another adverb; as, "More openly." (2.) By 
an adjunct; as, "Agreeably to nature." 

4. A Participle or an Infinitive used as an adjunct of the 
subject, may be modified: (1.) By an object. (2.) By an 
adjunct. (3.) By an infinitive. (4.) By an adverb. 

The third? The fourth? The fifth? The sixth? The seventh? 
How may an adjective be modified? An adverb? A participle? 
An infinitive? 



171 



Examples of the Participle. — "The man, having written 
the letter, mailed it." "The man, living in ea.se, became in- 
dolent." "The man, wishing to sleep, retired to his room." 
"The man, thoroughly frightened, fled from the house." 

Examples of the Infinitive. — "A desire to gain honor." 
"A desire to live in ease." "A resolution to cease to do evil." 
"A resolution to cease immediately from evil courses." 

A compound grammatical subject, considered as one com- 
plex idea, may itself be modified; as, "All bad books are 
pernicious." "The first two verses were sung." 

All modifies not books alone, but the complex idea, bad 
books. First modifies two verses. 

INFINITIVES, ETC., AS SUBJECTS. 

An infinitive, a participial noun, or an entire clause, may- 
be the subject of a verb ; as, "To lie is base'," "Lying is 
base ;" "That men should lie is base." 

So, also, a clause, consisting of an infinitive, with its subject 
in the objective preceded by for; as, "For men to lie is base." 

The verbs and participial nouns, in such cases, may be 
modified like the verb of a predicate." Thus, "To hate 
our enemies is forbidden." 

The infinitive mood, the participial noun, the finite verb 
with its subject, and the infinitive with its subject in the ob- 
jective, may be considered the grammatical subject. That 
and for may be considered as belonging to the subject. 

In such cases, when the subject comes after the predicate, 
the pronoun it is used ; as, "It is base that men shoidd lie." 

In this and similar sentences, the word it is not the sub- 
ject ; it serves only to introduce the sentence in a particular 
manner. 

What does all modify in the sentence, "All bad books are perni- 
cious.'" What may be the subject of a verb? What purpose does 
the pronoun it serve in such sentences as this, '-It is base that 
men should lie." 



172 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

The word there is often used to introduce a sentence when 
the subject comes after the predicate ;, as, "There are ten 
men here." 

N. B. — In the following pages, when the term subject 
alone is used, the grammatical subject is meant. 

THE PREDICATE. 

1. The Predicate, like the subject, is either gram- 
matical or logical. 

The grammatical predicate is simply a verb. The logical 
predicate consists of the grammatical predicate with its 
various modifications. Thus, "Scipio routed the forces of 
Hannibal." Here, routed is the grammatical, and routed 
the forces of Hannibal the logical predicate. 

If the grammatical predicate is not modified, it is the same 
as the logical. 

The logical predicate is the one treated of in analysis. 

2. The predicate, like the subject, is also either simple or 
compound. 

A Simple predicate is one which contains a single finite 
verb; as, "The man lives;" "Caesar was the conqueror of 
Gaul." 

A Compound predicate consists of two or more simple 
predicates belonging to the same subject; as, "He laughs 
and tceeps." 

A Grammatical predicate may be modified, or limited, in 
different ways: 

(1.) By a noun or pronoun, in the same case as the sub- 
ject; as, "He was called John;" "She moves a Goddess;" 
"It is fie." 

How is there often used? What is the grammatical predicate? 
The logical? What is a simple predicate? A compound pred- 
icate? In how many ways may the predicate be modified? Ex- 
plain them. 



SYNTAX. 173 

(2.) By a noun, or pronoun, in the objective case; as, 
"John struck James;" "I saw them;" "We heard noises." 
(3.) By an adjective referring to the subject ; as, "Good 
men arefeiv;" "Aristides was called just." 

(4.) By an adjunct; as, "William spoke to Thomas," 
(5.) By an adverb ; as, "John learns rapidly." 
(6.) By an infinitive; as, "George wishes to learn." 
(7.) By phrases; as, "The man went to his home in 
great wrath." Here the phrases, "to his home;" and, 
"in great wrath," modify the predicate "went." 

(8.) By clauses; as, "The man lived in the house which 
was uponthe hill-side." Here the clause, "which was upon 
the hill-side," is one of the modifiers of the predicate 
"lived." "He asked that the time might be extended." 

II.— KINDS OF SENTENCES. 

Two ways of classifying sentences. 

Sentences are divided into classes or kinds: first in 
reference to their use, secondly in reference to their struc- 
ture. 

1. Sentences, as to their use, are divided into three kinds, 
namely, Declarative, Interrogative, and Imperative. 

A Declarative Sentence is one which is used sim- 
ply to declare or deny. 

A declarative sentence must always contain a verb in the 
indicative or potential mood ; as, "He has not failed;" "A 
life spent in doing good could not be a failure." 

An Interrogative Sentence is one which is used 
to ask a question. 

An interrogative sentence must contain a verb in the indic- 
ative or potential mood; as, "Has he failed?" "Could a 
life spent in doing good be a failure?" 

When can there be an objective predicate? How are sentences 
classified? How many kinds of sentences are there? What does 
a declarative sentence contain? An interrogative sentence? 



174 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

An Imperative Sentence is one which is used to 
command, exhort, entreat, or permit. 

An imperative sentence must always contain a verb in the 
imperative mood; as, "John, sit up;" "Eemember my 
counsel;" "Do visit me;" "Go in peace." 

2. Sentences, as to their structure, are of two kinds, Sim- 
ple and Compound. 

A simple sentence is one which contains but one subject 
and one predicate. 

A compound sentence is one which contains two or more 
sentences, connected by one or more conjunctions. 

The simple sentences, of which a compound sentence is 
composed, are called members or clauses. Thus, "James 
was poor," is a simple sentence; "James was poor, though 
he might have been rich," is a compound sentence. In this 
compound sentence, "James was poor," and "he might 
have been rich," are members or clauses. 

INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 

The members of a compound sentence are either inde- 
pendent or dependent. 

An independent clause is one which makes complete sense 
by itself. 

A dependent clause is one which makes complete sense 
only in connection with another clause. Thus, "That man 
is happy, though he is affected with disease." Here the 
former clause is independent, the latter dependent. 

That member of a compound sentence on which the other 
members depend, is called the lending clause; its subject 
the leading subject, and its verb the leading verb. 

What is an imperative sentence used for? Bow are sentences 
considered as to their structure? What is a simple sentence? 
Compound sentence? What are the parts of a compound sen- 
tence called? What is an independent clause? A dependent? 
What is a leading clause? 



175 



CONNECTION OF CLAUSES. 



The members of a compound sentence may be connected 
by relatives, conjunctions or adverbs. Thus, "He is re- 
spected by all who know him;" "He fled when danger ap- 
peared;" "You say that he is honest." In the first sen- 
tence the relative who, besides being the subject of the verb 
knoiv, connects the clause to which it belongs to the leading 
clause ; in the second sentence, the adverb when connects the 
clauses ; in the third the conjunction that. 

An infinitive with its subject may be united to another 
clause without a connective ; as, "I believe John to be hon- 
est ;" that is, "I believe that John is honest." 

The connecting word is sometimes omitted ; as, "This is 
the man I saw;" "Thou canst not say I did it ; whom is 
omitted in the former sentence, and that in the latter. 

Instead of a dependent clause connected by a conjunc- 
tion, a noun and a participle sometimes stands as an abridged 
sentence; as, "The enemy having been subdued, he 
departed ;" that is, when the enemy had been subdued. 

III. EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 

The terms subject, predicate, copula, phrase, clause and 
member frequently occur in speaking of sentences. They 
ought to be practically understood. 

The Subject is simply the thing which is spoken of ; 
and is denoted by the nominative case. 

The Predicate is the saying made of the subject by 
the verb ; and includes the attribute or verb and its object. 

How may the members of a compound sentence be connected? 
What may be united to another clause without a connective? Is 
the word always expressed? What sometimes stands as an 
abridged sentence? What terms occur in speaking of sentences? 
What does the predicate include. 



176 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

The Copula is the verb to be (or some variation of it, 
either expressed or understood), which forms the connecting 
link between the subject and attribute or predicate ; and is 
either a visible or latent part cf every sentence in the lan- 
guage, and therefore its use cannot be too well understood. 
"The wise man," and "The man is wise," introduce and 
express the same idea, yet, "the icise man" is only a phrase, 
and "the man is icise," is a complete sentence. Thus you 
may perceive, that the little verb to be, is a very important 
factor in the construction of the English language, and its 
proper use requires nice discrimination. 

A Phrase is a number of words, connected in meaning, 
but not containing a predicate-verb, and not making by 
themselves complete sense. 

The principal phrases are the following : 

1. The Appositioxal Phrase; as, "June, the month of 
roses, has come at length." 

2. The Prepositional Phrase; as, "The cause of all this 
misery was intemperance." 

3. The Adjective Phrase; as, "Youth, full of expecta- 
tion, is ever sanguine." 

4. The Participial Phrase ; as, "Living on vegetables, he 
was not strong. 

5. The IxFiNTTrvE Phrase; as, "He determined to live on 
vegetables only." 

6. The Subject Phrase. This is where a participial 
phrase or an infinitive phrase is used as the subject of the 
verb; as, "Living on vegetables only is not conducive to 
strength." "To live on vegetables only is not conducive to 
strength." 

Will you explain the copula? What is a phrase? Will you 
name the principal phrases? 



SYNTAX. 177 

7. The Absolute Phrase ; as, "The king being cZeac/, Ins 
eldest son succeeded to the throne." 

8. The Independent Phrase. This includes all mere 
exclamations, and all words addressed to persons or things, 
and not grammatically dependent upon the other parts of 
the sentence; as, "Out upon thee, villain! He deserves the 
halter ;" "Detestable villain! You deserve the halter." The 
exclamations and addresses often consist of a single word ; 
as, "Villain, leave the house." 

A Clause is a number of words, connected in meaning 
and containing a verb with its subject, and so making by 
themselves complete sense, but not independent, being used 
to modify some other word. 

The principle clauses are the following: 

1. The Eelative Clause; as, "The man ivJio is faithful 
to duty is to be honored." 

2. The Appositional Clause ; as, "The maxim, put not 
off till to-morrow what can be done to-day, has much wisdom." 

3. The Subject Clause; as, "That life is uncertain, is 
known to all." 

4. The Object Clause; as, "They knew that the man 
was a villain." 

5. The Adverbial Clause; as, "He remained at the sta- 
tion until the train left." 

6. The Conjunctional Clause; as, "He will meet you 
at the station, if you come in time." ' 

A Member is a sentence, complete and independent in 
itself, and not used to modify any word or clause, yet united 
by a conjunction with some other sentence to form a com- 
pound sentence. 

What is a clause? Will you name the principal clauses? What 
is a member of a sentence? 



178 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

"The sun, when it had risen, scorched the grass." "When 
it had risen" cannot stand alone. It is a clause, dependent 
upon "sun." 

"The sun had risen, and the grass was scorched." Here 
are two sentences, each complete and independent in itself, 
but both united to form a compound sentence. These two 
sentences, taken separately, are called the members of the 
compound sentence. 

Remark. — For a full explanation of all the rules and 
notes of Syntax, see Carroll's Large Grammar, page 179, &c. 

What is the difference between a member of a sentence and a 
clause? 



PART IV. 



PROSODY. 

Prosody treats of the modulations of the voice accord- 
ing to the usages of the language we speak, and the senti- 
ments we wish to express ; hence, in its most extensive sense, 
it comprises all the laws of elocution. 

Prosody is commonly divided into two parts: the first 
teaches the true pronunciation of words, comprising accent, 
quantity, emphasis, pause, and tone; and the second, the 
laws of versification. 

PKONUNCIATION. 

ACCENT. 

Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain 
letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the 
rest, or distinguished from them; as, in the word presume, the 
stress of the voice must be on the letter u, and second syllable 
sume, which take the accent. 

QUANTITY. 

The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied in pro - 
nouncing it. It is considered long- or SHORT. 

A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel, 
which occasions it to be slowly joined, in pronunciation, with the 
following letter; as, fall, tale, mood, house, feature. 

A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant, which 
occasions the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter; 
as, ant, bonnet, hunger. 

A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short 
one in pronouncing it; thus, mate and note should be pronounced 
as slowly again as mat and not. 

What is prosody? What is accent? What is the quantity of a 
syllable? When is a vowel or syllable long? When short? Give 
examples of each? How much more time does the pronunciation 
of a long syllable occupy than a short one? 

179 



180 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

EMPHASIS. 

By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by 
which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to 
lay a particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the 
sentence. Sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished 
by a particular tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress. 

PAUSES. 

Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation of 
the voice, during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable 
space of time. 

TONES. 

Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses, consisting 
in the modulation of the voice, the notes or variations which we 
employ in the expression of our sentiments. 

VERIFICATION. 

Versification is the arrangement of a certain number and variety 
of syllables, according to certain laws. 

OF POETICAL FEET. 

A certain number of syllables connected form a foot. They are 
called feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, 
steps along through the verse in a measured pace. 

All feet used in poetry consist either of two, or of three sylla- 
bles, and are reducible to eight kinds— four of two syllables, and 
four of three — as follows : 

DISSYLLABLE. TRISYLLABLE. 

A Trochee, — w A Dactyl, — w w 

An Iambus, ^ — An Amphibrach, v - / — s - / 

A Spondee, An Anapaest, ^ w — 

A Pyrrhic, ^ w A Tribrach, ^ w v -' 

ATrochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented ; 
as, "Hateful, peevish." 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the latter ac- 
cented; as, "Betray, c6ncise." 

What is emphasis? What are pauses'? What are tones? What 
is versification? What constitutes a poetical foot, and why is it so 
called? Of how many syllables do poetical feet consist? How 
many kinds of feet are there, and what are they? What is a 
Trochee? an Iambus? 



PROSODY. 181 

A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented ; as, '-The 
pale moon." 

A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented; as, "on 
the Mil top." 

A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two latter un- 
accented; as, "Laborer, favorite." 

An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented, and 
the middle one accented; as, "Delightful, enticing." 

An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last 
accented; as, "Contravene, compromise." 

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented; as, "Numerable, 
conquerable." (This measure is rarely found in English poetry.) 

Some of these may be denominated principal feet, as pieces of 
poetry may be wholly or chiefly formed of any of them. Such 
are the Iambus, Trochee, Anapaest and Dactyl. The others may 
be termed secondary feet, because their chief use is to diversify the 
numbers, and to improve the verse. 

If a verse is composed principally of iambuses, it is called iambic 
verse; if of trochees, trochaic; if of anapaests, anapcestic; if of 
dactyls, dactylic. 

Bhyme is a similarity of sound between the last syllables of dif- 
ferent verses. 

Blank verse is without rhyme. 

Scanning is the dividing of a verse into the feet of which it is 
composed. 

A verse which is complete is called acatalectic; one which is 
deficient is called catalectic; one which has a redundant syllable 
is called hypercatalectic, or hypermeter. 

N. B. — In poetry, the accented syllable is long, whether the 
vowel in that syllable is long or short. 

Kemark. — For a general explanation of Prosody, see Carroll's 
Large Grammar, page 263, &c. 

What is a Spondee? a Pyrrhic? a Dactyl? an Amphibrach? an 
Anapaest? a Tribrach? Which are called principal feet? Which 
secondary? Why? What is Iambic verse? Trochaic? Anapaestic? 
Dactylic? What is rhyme? What is blank verse? What is 
scanning? What is a verse which is complete called? What is 
one which is deficient called? What is one which has a redundant 
syllable called? 



182 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing written composition 
into sentences, or parts of sentences, by points or stops, in 
order to mark the different pauses which the sense and an 
accurate pronunciation require. 

The comma represents the shortest pause; the semicolon, a pause 
double that of the comma; the colon, double that of the semico- 
lon; and the period, double that of the colon. 

N. B. — Pauses are regulated by the good sense, and judgment of 
the reader or speaker. 

Punctuation is a modern art. The ancients were entirely unac- 
quainted with the use of points, and wrote, not only without any 
distinction of members and periods, but also without any distinc- 
tion of words. This custom continued till the year 360 before 
Christ. How the ancients read their works, written in this man- 
ner, it is not easy to conceive. After the practice of joining words 
together had ceased, notes of distinction were placed at the end of 
every word. This practice continued a considerable time. 

As it appears that the present usage of points did not take place 
while manuscripts and monumental inscriptions were the only 
known methods of conveying knowledge, we must conclude, that 
it was introduced with the art of printing. The introduction was, 
however, gradual; all the points did not appear at once. The 
colon, semicolon, and the note of admiration, were produced some 
time after the others. The whole set, as they are now used, 
became established, when learning and refinement had made con- 
siderable progress. 

As the rules of punctuation are founded altogether on the gram- 
matical construction of sentences, their application pre-supposes, 
on the part of the student, a knowledge of syntax. Although 
they admit of exceptions, and require a continual exercise of 
judgment and literary taste in applying them properly, they are 
of great utility, and justly merit our particular attention. 

The great importance of acquiring a thorough knowledge of 
punctuation, and of attending strictly to the application of its 
rules, is established by the single fact that the meaning of a sentence 

What is punctuation? What does the comma represent? The 
semicolon? The colon? The period? How did the ;uicieuts 
write? 



PROSODY. 183 

is of ten totally perverted by the omission or misapplication of points . 
To illustrate the correctness of this remark, numerous examples 
might be selected. The following, border on the ridiculous: 
"Mr. Jared Hurton having gone to sea his wife, desires the pray- 
ers of this church;" "Tryon, who escaped from the jail on Friday 
last, is twenty- two years of age, has sandy hair, light eyes, thin 
visage, with a short nose turned up about six feet high," &c. 
Corrected: "Mr. Jared Hurton having gone to sea, his wife 
desires the-prayers of this church;" thin visage, with a short nose 
turned up, about six feet high," &c. 

"Woman, without her, man would be a savage." 
"Woman without her man, would be a savage." 

OF THE COMMA. 

The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence which, 
though very closely connected in sense and construction, require 
a pause between them. 

Rule 1. — With respect to a simple sentence, the several words 
of which it is composed, have so near a relation to each other, that, 
in general, no points are requisite, except a full stop at the end of 
it; as, "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." 
"Every part of nature swarms with living creatures." 

A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one, and the 
nominative case is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts, may 
admit of a pause immediately before the verb; as, "The good 
taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect the cultiva- 
tion of the English language." "To be totally indifferent to 
praise or censure, is a real defect in character" 

Rule 2. — When the connection of the different parts of a simple 
sentence, is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a comma is 
usually introduced before the beginning and at the end of the 
phrase; as, "I remember, with gratitude, his goodness to me." 
"His work is, in many respects, very imperfect." "It is, therefore, 
not much approved." But when the interruptions are slight and 
unimportant, the comma is better omitted; as, "Flattery is cer- 
tainly pernicious." "There is surely a pleasure in beneficence." 

Rule 3. — When two or more nouns occur in the same construc- 
tion, they are parted by a comma; as, "The husband, wife and 
children, suffered extremely." They took away their furniture, 
clothes, and stock in trade." 



184 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

From this rule there is mostly an exception, with regard to two 
nouns closely connected by a conjunction; as, "Virtue and vice 
form a strong contrast to each other." "Libertines call religion 
bigotry or superstition." If the parts connected are not short, a 
comma may be inserted, though the conjunction is expressed; as, 
"Romances may be said to be miserable rhapsodies, or dangerous 
incentives to evil." 

Rule 4. — Two or more adjectives, belonging to the same sub- 
stantive, are likewise separated by commas; as, "Plain, honest 
truth wants no artificial covering." "David was a brave, wise, 
and pious man." 

But two adjectives immediately connected by a conjunction, are 
not separated by a comma; as, "Truth is fair and artless." "We 
must be wise or foolish; there is no medium." 

Rule 5. — Two or more verbs, having the "same nominative case, 
and immediately following one another, are also separated by 
commas; as, "Virtue supports in adversity, moderates in pros- 
perity." "In a letter we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, 
and discuss." 

Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, are an 
exception to the rule; as, "The study of natural history expands 
and elevates the mind." 

Two or more participles are subject to a similar rule and excep- 
tion. 

Rule 6. — Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding each 
other, must be separated by commas; as, "We are fearfully, 
wonderfully framed." "We must act prudently, steadily, and 
vigorously." 

When two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, they are not 
parted by a comma; as, "Some men sin deliberately and pre- 
sumptuously." 

Rule 7. — When participles are followed by something that 
depends upon them, they are generally separated from the rest of 
the sentence by commas; as, "The king, approving the plan, put 
it in execution." "His talents, formed for great enterprises, could 
not fail of rendering him conspicuous." 

Rule S. — When a conjunction is parted by a phrase or sentence 
from the verb to which it belongs, such intervening phrase has 
usually a comma at each extremity; as, "They set out early, and 
before the dawn of day, arrived at the destined place." 



PROSODY. 185 

Rule 9. — Expressions in a direct address are separated from 
the rest of the sentence by commas; as, "My son, give me thy 
heart." "I am obliged to you, my friends, for your manyfavors." 

Rule 10. — The case absolute, and the infinitive mood absolute, 
are separated by commas from the body of the sentence; as, "His 
father dying, he succeeded to the estate." "At length, their 
ministry performed, and race well run, they left the world in 
peace." "To confess the truth, I was much in fault." 

Rule 11. — Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to other 
nouns in the same case, by way of explication or illustration, when 
accompanied with adjuncts, are set off by commas; as, "Paul, the 
Apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and knowledge." 
"The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun*" 

But if such nouns are single, or only form a proper name, they 
are not divided; as, "Paul the Apostle." "The Emperor Anto- 
ninus wrote an excellent book." 

Rule 12. — Simple members of sentences, connected by compar- 
atives, are, for the most part, distinguished by a comma; as, "As 
the hart panteth after the water-brooks, so doth my soul pant 
after thee." "Better is a dinner of herbs with love, than a stalled 
ox and hatred with it." 

If the members in comparative sentences are short, the comma 
is, in general, better omitted; as, "How much better is it to get 
wisdom than gold!" 

Rule 13. — When words are placed in opposition to each other, 
or with some marked variety, they require to be distinguished by 
a comma; as, 

"Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull; 
Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full." 

"Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found not 
only in union with, but in opposition to, the views and conduct of 
one another." 

Sometimes, when the word with which the last preposition 
agrees is single, it is better to omit the comma before it; as, 
"Many states were in alliance with, and under the protection of 
Rome." 

The same rule and restriction must be applied when two or 
more nouns refer to the same preposition; as, "He was composed 
both under the threatening, and at the approach, of a cruel and 
lingering death." 



186 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

Rule 14. — A remarkable expression, or a short observation, 
somewbat in tbe manner of a quotation, may be properly marked 
with a comma; as, "It hurts a man's pride to say, I do not know." 
"Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves." 

Rule 15. — Relative pronouns are connective words, and gener- 
ally admit a comma before them; as. "He preaches sublimely, 
icho lives a sober, righteous, and pious life." 

But when two members or phrases are closely connected by a 
relative, restraining tbe general notion of the antecedent to a par- 
ticular sense, the comma should be omitted; as, "Self denial is 
the sacrifice which virtue must make." 

The fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in which the relative is 
not expressed, but understood; as, "It was from piety, warm and 
unaffected, that his morals derived strength." 

Rule 16. — A simple member of a sentence, contained within 
another, or following another, must be distinguished by a comma; 
as, "To improve time whilst we are blessed with health, will 
smooth the bed of sickness." "Very often, while we are com- 
plaining of the vanity and the evils of human life, we make that 
vanity, and we increase those evils." 

If, however, the members succeeding each other are very 
closely connected, the comma is. unnecessary; as, "Revelation 
tells us how wc may attain happiness." 

When a verb in the infinitive mood follows its governing verb. 
with several words between them, those words should generally 
have a comma at the end of them; as, "It ill becomes good and 
wise men, to oppose and degrade one another." 

Several verbs in the iufinitive mood, having a common depend- 
ence, and succeeding one auother, are also divided by commas; 
as, "To relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect 
the innocent, to reward the deserving, are humane and noble em- 
ployments." 

Rule 17. — When the verb to be is followed by a verb in the in- 
finitive mood, which, by transposition, might be made the nom- 
inative case to it, the former is generally separated from the latter 
verb by a comma; as, "The most obvious remedy is, to withdraw 
from all associations with bad men." "The first and most obvious 
remedy against the infection is, to withdraw from all associations 
with bad men." 



PROSODY. 187 

Rule 18. — When adjuncts or circumstances are of importance, 
and often when the natural order of them is inverted, they may 
be set off by commas; as, "Virtue must be formed and supported, 
not by unfrequent acts, but by daily and repeated exertions." 
"Vices, like shadows, towards the evening of life, grow great and 
monstrous." 

Rule 19.— Where the verb is understood, a comma may often 
be properly introduced. This is a general rule, which, besides 
comprising some of the preceding rules, will apply to many cases 
not determined by any of them; as, "From law arises security; 
from security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge." 

Rule 20. — The words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, form- 
erly, now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next 
place, in short, and all other words and phrases of the same kind, 
must generally be separated from the contest by a comma. 

THE SEMICOLON. 

The semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into 
two or more parts, not so closely connected as those which are 
separted by a comma, nor yet so little dependent on each other 
as those which are distinguished by a colon. 

The semicolon is sometimes used when the preceding member 
of the sentence does not of itself give a complete sense, but de- 
pends on the following clause; and sometimes when the sense of 
that member would be complete without the concluding one, as 
in the following instance: "As the desire of approbation, when it 
works according to reason, improves the amiable part of our 
species in everything that is laudable; so nothing is more de- 
structive to them when it is governed by vanity and folly." 

THE COLON. 

The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, 
less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon; 
but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences. 

The colon may be properly applied in the three following 
cases : 

1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but fol- 
lowed by some supplemental remark, or further illustration of 

Will you repeat the rules on the use of the comma? When is 
the semicolon used? When is the colon used? In what three 
cases may the colon be properly applied? 



188 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

the subject; as, "Naturefelt her inability to extricate herself from 
the consequences of guilt : the gospel reveals the plan of divine 
interposition and aid." 

2. When several semicolons have preceded, and a still greater 
pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting or concluding 
sentiment; as, "A divine Legislator, uttering his voice from 
heaven; an almighty Governor, stretching forth his arm to punish 
or reward ; informing us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter for 
the righteous, and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked : 
these are the considerations which overawe the world, which sup- 
port integrity, and check guilt." 

3. The colon is commonly used when an example, a quotation, 
or a speech is introduced; as, "The scriptures give us an amiable 
representation of the Deity, in these words : 'God is love.' " 

THE PERIOD. 

When a sentence is complete and independent, and not con- 
nected in coustruction with the following sentence, it is marked 
with a period. 

The period should be used after every abbreviated word; as, 
M. S., P. S., N. B., A. D., O. S., BT. S., &c. 

THE DASH. 

The dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incohe- 
rent writers, may be introduced with propriety where the sen- 
tence breaks off abruptly; where a significant pause is required; 
or where there is an unexpected turn in the sentence; as, "If 
thou art he, so much respected once — but, oh! how fallen! how 
degraded!" 

INTERROGATION. 

A note of interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative 
sentence; that is, when a question is asked; as, "Who will ac- 
company me?" "Shall we always be friends?" 

EXCLAMATION. 

The note of exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden 
emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &c, and also to invocations or ad- 

When is the period used? After abbreviated words what point 
should be used? Give examples. When may the dash be in- 
troduced with propriety? To what is the note of exclamation 
applied? Give an example. 



PROSODY. 189 

dresses; as, "My friend ! this conduct amazes me!" "Praise the 
Lord, O my soul! and forget not all his benefits!" 

The interrogation and exclamation points are indeterminate as 
to their quantity or time, and may be equivalent, in that respect 
to a semicolon, a colon, or a period, as the sense may require. 
They mark an elevation of the voice. 

Kemabk.— For other marks used in writing and the figures of 
speech, see Carroll's Large Grammar, page 278, &c. 

COMPOSITION. 

It may be laid down as a maxim of eternal truth, that good 
sense is the foundation of all good writing. One who understands 
a subject well, will scarcely write ill upon it. Clear thinking- 
makes clear writing. 

Khetoric, or the art of persuasion, requires in a writer, the 
union of good sense, and a lively and chaste imagination. It is, 
then, her province to teach him to embellish his thoughts with 
elegant and appropriate language, vivid imagery, and an agree- 
able variety of expression. It ought to be his aim, 

"To mark the point where sense and dullness meet." 

A full consideration of these topics, in a work of this kind, 
would be as impractical as it would be out of place, since it would 
require a volume for that purpose. They are fully treated of and 
exemplified in works on elocution, a subject which is, or should 
be, taken up as a separate branch of study. 

HINTS FOR CORRECT AND ELEGANT WRITING. 

Correct and elegant writing depends partly upon the choice of 
words and partly upon the form and structure of sentences. 

1. In so far as respects single words, the chief things to be ob- 
served are, purity, propriety, and precision. 

PURITY. 

Purity consists in the rejection of such words and phrases as are 
not strictly English, nor in accordance with the practice of good 
writers and speakers. Foreign, obsolete and unauthorized words 
should be avoided. 

Are the exclamation and interrogation points determinate as to 
their quantity or time? 



190 Carroll's elementary grammar. 



PROPRIETY. 

Propriety is the choice of those words -which the best usage has 
appropriated to the ideas which we intend to express by them. 
It implies their correct and judicious application, in opposition to 
low expressions, and to words and phrases which would be less 
significant of the ideas which we wish to convey. It is the union 
of purity and propriety which renders style graceful and per- 
spicuous. 

PRECISION. 

Precision signifies retrenching all superfluities, and pruning the 
expression in such a manner as to exhibit neither more nor less 
than an exact copy of the ideas intended to be conveyed. 

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 

2. With respect to sentences, clearness, unity, strength, and a 
proper application of the figures of speech, are necessary. 

CLEARNESS. 

Clearness demands a proper arrangement of words. 

1. Adverbs, relative pronouns, and explanatory phrases, must 
be placed as near as possible to the words which they affect, and 
in such a situation as the sense requires. 

2. In prose, a poetic collocation must be avoided. 

3. Pronouns must be so used as clearly to indicate the words 
for which they stand. 

UNITY. 

Unity retains one predominant object through a sentence, or 
series of clauses. 

1. Separate into distinct sentences such clauses as have no im- 
mediate connection. 

2. The principal words must, throughout a sentence, be the 
most prominent; and the leading nominative should, if possible, 
be the subject of every clause. 

3. Avoid the introduction of parentheses, except when a lively 
remark may be thrown in, without too long suspending the sense 
of what goes before. 

STRENGTH. 

Strength gives to every word and every member its due im- 
portance. 



PROSODY. 191 

1. Avoid tautology, and reject all superfluous words and mem- 
bers. 

2. Place the most important words in the situation in which 
they will make the strongest impression. 

3. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and when 
the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the 
concluding one. 

4. When two things are compared or contrasted with each 
other, when either resemblance or opposition is to be expressed, 
some resemblance in the language and construction should be 
preserved. , 

5. A sentence should not be concluded with a preposition, or 
any inconsiderable word or phrase, unless it be emphatic. 

FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

1. Figurative language must be used sparingly, and never, ex- 
cept when it serves to illustrate or enforce what is said. 

2. Figures of speech, when used, should be such as appear 
natural; not remote or foreign from the subject, and not pursued 
too far. 

3. Literal and figurative language ought never to be blended 
together. 

4. When figurative language is used, the same figure should be 
preserved throughout, and different figures never jumbled to- 
gether. 

5. Express every distinct thought or fact in a distinct sentence, 
and be very sparing in the use of ands and buts. 

DIFFERENT WAYS OF EXPRESSING- THE SAME IDEA. 

There are chiefly four ways in which the mode of expressing a 
thought may be varied. 

1. By changing an active into a passive, or a passive into an 
active verb; as, "The sun dissolves the snow;" "The snow is dis- 
solved by the sun." 

2. By inversions or transpositions, which consist in changing 
the order in which the words stand in the sentence; as, "Com- 
petence may be acquired by industry;" "By industry, competence 
may be acquired." 



192 Carroll's elementary grammar. 

3. By changing an affirmative into a negative, or a negative in- 
to an affirmative, of an entirely contrary character; as, "Virtue 
promotes happiness;" "Virtue does not promote misery." 

4. By either a partial or an entire change of the words em- 
ployed to express any sentiment; as, "Diligence and application 
are the best means of improvement;" "Nothing promotes im- 
provement like diligence and application." 

USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 

It is proper to begin with a capital — 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any 
other piece of writing. 

2. The' first word after a period, and, if the two sentences are 
totally independent, after a note of interrogation or exclamation. 

3. The appellations of the Deity; as, God, Jehovah, the Al- 
mighty, the Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, the Messiah, 
the Holy Spirit. 

4. The proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains 
rivers, ships; as, George, York, the Strand, the Alps, the Thames, 
the Seahorse. 

5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places; as, 
Grecian, Roman, English, French, Italian, &c. 

6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or 
when it is in a direct form; as, "Always remember this ancient 
maxim: 'Know thyself/ " 

The first word of an example may also very properly begin with 
a capital. 

7. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books; 
as, Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language; Thompson's 
Seasons. 

8. The first word of every line in poetry. 

9. The pronoun I and the interjection are written in capitals. 
Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals 

when they are remarkably emphatical or the principal subject of 
the composition. 



